“Vanwesenbeeck (2009). Doing gender in sex and sex research.” – Article summary

Masculinity is typically linked to lesbianism and femininity is linked to male-homosexuality in some contexts but not in all. There are ten major difficulties in the treatment of gender in sex research:

1. Gender versus sex
   It is not clear whether there is a difference between gender and sex in sex research. They are often used interchangeably and this could lead to confusion.
2. Gender and sexuality
   Gender is mostly seen as preceding and determining sexuality although they are more likely to be co-dependent and mutually informing. This relationship is dynamic.
3. Preoccupation with difference
   There is dichotomous, categorical thinking when it comes to gender in sex research. This may be necessary to obtain information in research or for political reasons.
4. Exaggeration of differences
   The differences between genders are often exaggerated while the differences are often small or trivial.
5. Sex research methodology problems
   The methodological problems in sex research inflate gender differences and reinforce the double standard.
6. Within-group differences
   The within sex differences are obscured and neglected by focusing on the between gender differences.
7. Using sex as an explanatory variable
   This neglects the importance of other generating and mediating factors (e.g. double standard as mediating factor).
8. Relationship gender and body
   There are difficulties in understanding the relationship between gender and the body (i.e. biology and sexuality).
9. Definition of gender
   Gender is often referred to as a cultural and individual phenomenon while it often seems to exist in interactions.
10. Gender as static versus fluid
    Gender is often presented as static while it may be useful to view it as fluid, dynamic and changing.

There are several perspectives about the body in relation to gender and sexuality:

1. Genes, hormones and the brain
   Gender is influenced by biology but not determined.
2. Objectification theory
   This theory states that girls’ and women’s internalized observed perspective leads to self-objectification and habitual body monitoring (i.e. girls always focus on observing themselves) This increases the possibilities of shame and anxiety.
3. Post-structuralist view
   This view states that the sexed body and gender are variable and historical. It implies that the body is constructed by gender (e.g. knowledge of biological facts is always filtered through gender). This means that it is a cultural construct.

According to the objectification theory, being vigilant and constantly aware of the outer body leaves the woman with fewer resources to be aware of the inner body experience (i.e. limited resources perspective). This means that girls’ sexual lives are influenced by self-objectification and hypervigilance of their own body as it requires awareness of the inner body experience.

There are several possible areas where gender differences could exist:

1. Cognitive realm
   There are gender differences in sex-related attitudes. Men are more often focused on themselves whereas the woman is focused on the partner. Furthermore, men endorsed all reasons to have sex more often except for emotional reasons and men see themselves as more sexually responsive, deviant and experienced whereas women see themselves as romantic and sexually attractive.
2. Behavioural realm
   Men report more frequent sexual thought (1), acts (2) and number of partners (3). Men are also more sexually aggressive, including coercion and harassment.
3. Sexual experience
   Women report more sexual dysfunctions and problems than men. This may be due to the nature of the problems. Women more often have negative feelings towards sex than men, possibly due to the sexual aggression of men.
4. Plasticity versus rigidity
   Women show more within-person variance over time on many sexual variables. They also show more response to various socio-cultural variables and show less attitude-behaviour consistency.

For women, there often is a conscious inhibition of automatic processes whereas a failing inhibition of automatic processes may be an important factor in sexual aggression in men. When it comes to sexuality, men are more natural whereas women are more cultural. Stereotyping can support the status quo rather than produce social change.

Adhering to restrictive gender norms leads to a wide variety of negative effects for women (e.g. more depression). There is confounding for educational level (1), religious affiliation (2) and age (3) when it comes to gender differences in sexuality. Sex-related motives (1), attitudes (2) and beliefs (3) are confounding for sex (e.g. risk behaviour varies with sexual motivation).

Doing gender refers to the expression of gender through behaviour. It consists of seeing (i.e. interpreting) and doing (i.e. acting) in daily interactions in a specific context. The enactment of stereotypical gendered sexual behaviour is dependent upon different characteristics:

1. Behaviour-related aspects
   The enactment of gender-typed behaviour is more likely the more the behaviour is central to the standard heterosexual script.
2. Situation-related aspects
   The enactment of gender-typed behaviour is more likely in situations where gender is salient (1), highly structured situations (2), situations defined towards heterosexual interaction (3), situations being more public (4) and the situation involving strangers or friends and primed situations (5).
3. Partner-related aspects
   The enactment of gender-typed behaviour is more likely when the partner controls resources or rewards for the subject (1), the interacting partner is more strongly gender-typed (2) and the interacting partner finds adherence to gender norms important (3).
4. Subject-related aspects
   The enactment of gender-typed behaviour is more likely when the subject highly values meeting gender norms as behaviour that fits one’s self-concept is more likely to be displayed.

Enactment of gender-typed behaviour is more likely when the partner controls resources or rewards for the subject because people are more concerned with their self-presentation when they are dependent upon their interacting partners. Concerns with self-presentation may interfere with the awareness of inner sexual state (1), sexual autonomy (2) and sexual satisfaction (3).