Organizational Behaviour, emerging knowledge and practice for the real world, by S. McShane, M. Von Glinow (fifth edition) – Summary chapter 4

Behaviour in the workplace is influenced by cognitive processes and emotions. Emotions may have a greater effect because they can occur prior to cognitive processes. Emotions are physiological, behavioural and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person or event. Emotional states are short-term and moods are long-term. All emotions have two common features: emotions have a certain valence, also called core affect (e.g: approach or avoid object) (1) and emotions ready us to some extent (2).

Attitudes are evaluations of an object or event. Attitudes consist of beliefs, feelings and behavioural intentions. Feelings can make sure that attitudes differ, even though the beliefs and the behaviours are the same for two people. Having more positive emotions at work can counteract negative experiences at work. Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable physiological state when attitudes and behaviour conflict. Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by changing the attitude or behaviour. Emotions are partly determined by personality. The actual situation in which people work has a stronger influence on their attitudes and behaviour than personality.

Emotional labour refers to the effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. Emotional labour is higher when the display rules are precise, if the contact with the client is frequent and long and if the emotions have to be intense. Norms about displaying or hiding your true emotions vary across cultures. Emotional dissonance refers to the tension when the emotions people are required to display differ from the emotions they are actually experiencing at the moment. Surface acting can help with this, pretending to feel the expected emotion. Surface acting can lead to higher stress and burnout. The psychological damage can be reduced by seeing surface acting as part of a role. This does not deprive the person’s self-worth. Deep acting involves visualizing reality differently, which produces emotions more consistent with the required emotion. Deep acting requires emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is a set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion and regulate emotion in oneself and others. Emotional intelligence consists of four dimensions:

1. Awareness of our own emotions
   This is the awareness to perceive and understand the meaning of our own emotions.
2. Management of our own emotions
   This is the ability to manage our own emotions.
3. Awareness of others’ emotions
   This is the ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people.
4. Management of others’ emotions
   This is the ability to manage other people’s emotions (e.g: consoling).

The four dimensions form a hierarchy and one dimension needs to be fulfilled in order to go to the next one (4-3-2-1). Emotional intelligence improves employee performance and well-being. It only improves tasks that require social interaction. Emotional intelligence can be improved through training and improves with age.

Job satisfaction is a person’s evaluation of his or her job and work context. It is a collection of attitudes about different aspects of the job and work context. It is difficult to compare job satisfaction across countries because it mostly uses a single question and there are different cultural values and that job satisfaction changes with economic conditions. The exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model states that there are four ways in which employees react to job dissatisfaction:

1. Exit
   If people experience job dissatisfaction, they could leave the company.
2. Voice
   If people experience job dissatisfaction, they could try to change the situation.
3. Loyalty
   If people experience job dissatisfaction, they could remain loyal to the employer and wait.
4. Neglect
   If people experience job dissatisfaction, they could neglect their work.

An individual’s personality, values and self-concept are important factors in predicting how a person would respond to job dissatisfaction. Past experience and the current situation also influence this. People that are satisfied with their job tend to be more productive and have better performance. Job satisfaction doesn’t predict specific behaviours. Some employees cannot change in quality and job satisfaction often arises with improved performance. Job satisfaction has a stronger effect on customer service than overall job performance. The service profit chain model states that employees’ job satisfaction influences company profitability indirectly through service quality, customer loyalty and related factors. Satisfied employees produce happier customers because they are less likely to quit and thus have more work experience (1) and they are in a good mood and this could put customers in a good mood as well (2).

Affective organizational commitment refers to an individual’s emotional attachment to, involvement in and identification with an organization. Continuance commitment refers to an individual’s calculative attachment to the organization (e.g: are their other options available and can I afford to quit?). Affective organizational commitment leads to a competitive advantage for the organization, but it leads to higher conformity and thus to lower creativity. There are several ways an organization can build and maintain affective commitment:

1. Justice and support
   If the company is fair, the chance for affective organizational commitment is higher.
2. Shared values
   People experience higher affective organizational commitment if there are shared values.
3. Trust
   If employees have a lot of trust in the organization affective organizational commitment is higher.
4. Organizational comprehension
   If employees understand the organization affective organizational commitment is higher.
5. Employee involvement
   If employee involvement is high, affective organizational commitment is also higher.

Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a person’s well-being. Distress is the degree of physiological, psychological and behavioural deviation from healthy functioning. Eustress actives and motivates people to achieve goals and change their environments.

The general adaptation syndrome is a model of the stress experience, consisting of alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion. If people experience stress, there is an alarm reaction (1), resistance to the stress (2) and exhaustion (3).

There are several consequences of stress, such as health problems, including headaches and cardiovascular disease and psychological consequences, such as job dissatisfaction and depression. A job burnout occurs when people experience emotional exhaustion, cynicism and reduced feelings of personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion is a lack of energy and tiredness. Cynicism is an indifferent attitude toward work. Reduced personal accomplishment refers to diminished confidence in one’s ability to perform the job well.

Stressors refer to any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on the person. There are four common stressors in the workplace:

1. Organizational constraints
   These are constraints that interfere with task performance.
2. Interpersonal conflict
   Interpersonal conflict, such as disagreements or bullying.
3. Work overload
   Work overload, such as too much to do in too little time.
4. Low task control
   A lack of control over the pace of work activity.

There are individual differences in the experience of stress levels. Physical health, the coping strategy of an individual and personality are important in dealing with stress. There are several strategies to reduce stress:

1. Remove the stressor
   Removing the stressor can have positive consequences on the stress levels of an individual and can be achieved by flexible and limited work time (1), job sharing (2), telecommuting (3), personal leave (4) and child care support (5).
2. Withdraw from the stressor
   Permanently or temporarily removing employees from the stressor can reduce stress levels.
3. Change stress perceptions
   Changing the way stressors are perceived can reduce stress levels. A positive self-evaluation and optimism are important for this.
4. Control stress consequences
   The stress consequences can be controlled by improving physical health and the copings strategy and this can reduce stress levels.
5. Receive social support
   Receiving social support can reduce stress levels.