What do we mean by learning ability and creativity? - Chapter 5

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that is brought about by experience or practice. Three important elements of this definition are change, permanence, and experience.

What is operant conditioning?

One of the fundamental learning processes is B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning. According to this approach, operant conditioning is learned by experiencing the relationship between behavior and its consequences. In addition to consequences, antecedents also play a role in this learning process: instructions, rules, goals, advice and anything else that will help the employee realize what is right and what is wrong. Antecedents contribute in this way to the learning process through an educational role. The consequences of behavior can lead to two outcomes: an increase in desired behavior and a decrease in undesirable behavior.

An increase in desired behavior can be achieved through reinforcement, the process through which the chance of desired behavior increases by applying consequences that depend on the behavior because the consequences are made dependent on the behavior, the association between behavior and consequence develops.

The first step in the use of reinforcement is to identify the desired behavior. This seems obvious, but in practice often behavior other than the intended behavior is reinforced, for example, the behavior seems effective in the short term but in the long term it does not have the desired effect.

When the correct desired behavior is identified, the second step is to decide how to reinforce the behavior. This can be done in two ways: positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement means that there is a positive consequence of the desired behavior, such as a salary increase or promotion after delivering good work. Important for positive reinforcement is that there are individual differences in what is perceived as positive; the reinforcer must, therefore, be attuned to the individual.

Negative reinforcement means that a negative consequence is removed when desired behavior occurs, for example when a report is handed in on time the manager should stop complaining. The negative consequence of undesirable behavior is thus removed when the undesirable behavior turns into desired behavior. Negative reinforcement should not be confused with punishment (see below).

In both forms of reinforcement, it is important that the degree of excitation is in proportion to the magnitude of the behavior. Other guidelines when applying reinforcement are:

• Positive reinforcement is generally better than negative reinforcement

• The behavior to be confirmed must be carefully selected (first step)

• There must be balance in the emphasis on various desired behaviors

Reinforcement can take place on a continuous basis, for example, the behavior is always enforced when it occurs without exception. Another possibility is reinforcement on a partial basis, whereby the behavior is reinforced at intervals (a pause or a break between reinforcement). Continuous reinforcement leads to faster learning of desired behavior than partial reinforcement, but when it is stopped the behavior also disappears faster.

Furthermore, there are four possible methods of partial reinforcement:

• Fixed interval: the lapse of time between the moments of reinforcement is fixed

• Variable interval: the time interval between the moments of reinforcement varies

• Fixed ratio: Reinforcement depends on a fixed number of behaviors

• Variable ratio: Reinforcement is variable but averaged over the whole of behaviors

Which method one chooses depends primarily on practical considerations and has no significant influence on the effect of reinforcement; the effect depends on a clear relationship between behavior and consequence (reinforcement).

A specific form of reinforcement is shaping. This is the reinforcement of behavior that approaches the desired behavior. Shaping is an effective way of operant conditioning when it comes to complex behavior that requires knowledge and skills that the person learning the behavior does not yet have.

The second possible outcome of reinforcement is a decrease in undesirable behavior. This can be achieved by means of extinction and punishment.

Extinction means that unwanted behavior is reduced due to the elimination of the source of reinforcement. An example is to stop laughing at jokes that take too much time at meetings. It is important here that the source of reinforcement of undesirable behavior is correctly identified.

Punishment is the introduction of a negative consequence for undesirable behavior. In work-related situations, punishment can be applied for extremely undesirable behavior, such as sexual harassment or unsafe handling of dangerous machines. As with positive reinforcers, there are individual differences in what is experienced as a negative consequence.

Guidelines for using punishment in organizations are:

• Minimizing the emotional component (punish the behavior, not the person)

• Making sure that the punishment is experienced as a negative consequence by the individual

• Avoiding punishment in the presence of others

• Learning desired behavior instead of unwanted behavior

What does Organizational Behavior Modification (OB MOD) stand for?

OB MOD stands for the systematic application of operant conditioning principles in organizations. OB MOD consists of five steps:

1. Identifying the behavior to be learned

2. Measuring the baseline frequency in which the behavior occurs

3. Analyzing the antecedents and consequences

4. Intervening to change behavior by introducing operant conditioning principles (positive and negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment) and antecedents

5. Evaluating

After the evaluation, there are two possible outcomes:

• The intervention was successful: there is an increase in the desired behavior. The next step is to maintain the desired behavior, for example by stabilizing the level of reinforcement

• The intervention was not successful: the behavioral change did not occur. The next step may be to review and adjust the intervention, or to review the identification of the behavior again

OB MOD appears to be an effective method for improving productivity, punctuality, and safety for example. However, there is an ethical debate about the method. Proponents state that OB MOD has positive effects on the organization and its employees. Opponents believe that OB MOD is too controlling and deprives employees of their dignity, freedom of choice and individuality. Moreover, they argue that operant conditioning can lead to less initiative to conduct good behavior however this is not confirmed. There is no clear answer to the question of whether OB MOD is ethical. The counter-arguments are rebuttable and the application of OB MOD in organizations is bound by labor legislation but as a manager, it is important to realize that this ethical dilemma plays a role.

What is the Social-Cognitive Theory?

Operant conditioning involves an important part of the learning process but leaves out processes within the person. According to the Social-Cognitive Theory of Bandura, feelings, thoughts and the observation of the social environment play a crucial role in the learning process.

Cognitive processes are mental thought processes. In the field of social cognition, it concerns the processing of information from the social environment.

An important aspect of Social-Cognitive Learning Theory is observational learning (vicarious learning). This occurs when a person (the pupil) learns by observing the behavior from another (the model) and also sees that the behavior is reinforced. For observational learning, the following conditions must be met:

• The pupil must observe the model at the time the behavior takes place

• The student must correctly observe the behavior

• The student must remember the behavior

• The student must have the skills and abilities required for the behavior

• The student has to see that the model receives reinforcement

Observational learning plays an important role in organizations. This happens both consciously, for example in training sessions and unconsciously, for example, because employees see each other performing routines (taking a break at specific times) and copy professional skills from each other.

How can independent learning take place?

Independent learning can take place according to the Social Cognitive Theory through self-control. Self-control is self-discipline that ensures that a person can learn to behave themselves without involving another person or external pressure. The following conditions indicate self-control:

• The person is concerned with behavior that they would not usually want to perform and that is also not being reinforced externally (low-probability behavior). The distinction between pleasant and strenuous activities is important here.

• Self-reinforcers are consequences or rewards that the person applies to himself.

• The person consciously sets goals and determines when self-empowerment takes place.

• The person applies the reinforcer when a goal has been achieved.

The degree of self-control varies from person to person. When an employee exercises a high degree of self-control, the manager has to take a less active role in coaching work-related behavior.

What is self-efficacy and what role does this have in Social-Cognitive Theory?

An important factor in social-cognitive theory is self-efficacy, the extent to which a person believes in his or her capacity to perform a behavior. Self-efficacy influences the learning processes in three ways. Firstly, high self-efficacy leads to higher and more challenging goals. Secondly, a high self-efficacy leads to a greater effort and thirdly, high self-efficacy ensures more perseverance.

Self-efficacy is based on past performance, observations of behavior by others, verbal persuasion by others, and listening to one's internal physiological state.

What is experiential learning?

Experiential learning is the learning process that takes place by actively engaging with the behavior that is being taught. Some situations require practical execution of the behavior. Theoretical knowledge is then not enough and learning must then take place by doing.

What is meant by creativity?

Creativity is generating new and useful ideas. By 'new' what is meant is that the ideas represent new ways of thinking. By 'usable' what is meant is that the ideas potentially contribute to the functioning and well-being of an individual, group or organization. Creativity is accompanied by constant learning.

Innovation is related to creativity; it is the successful application of creative ideas.

The process of creativity includes a number of steps:

1. Recognizing the problem

2. Getting information

3. Producing ideas (potential solutions to the problem)

4. Selecting useful ideas

5. Implementing these ideas

The order of these steps is not fixed and not all steps need to be completed.

Creativity is by definition difficult to predict. There are individual differences in creativity, but situational factors can also lead to creativity so that people who are not so creative by nature can still bring forth creative ideas.

Although creativity is difficult to predict, there are a number of factors that contribute to creativity. There are three important personal factors. First, there are individual differences in personality and capacity. In terms of personality, Openness, one of the Big Five personality traits, is a predictive factor, as well as an internal locus of control and high self-esteem. In addition, the correlation between intelligence and creativity is high.

The second and third personal factors are work-related knowledge and intrinsic motivation.

Situational factors that contribute to creativity are the degree of autonomy, the form of evaluation, the reward system and the importance of the problem. Autonomy is the freedom and independence to make decisions and personal control over one's own work. The more autonomy, the more freedom for creativity.

With regard to the form of evaluation, feedback and encouragement are important however, there should not be too much criticism because this can lead to a reduction in risk-taking and thus to a reduction of creativity.

The reward system must not only reward correct and efficient behavior as there is no room for risks and therefore none for creativity either. Instead, it is important to encourage hard work and creativity so that employees have the opportunity to take risks to some extent and are willing to accept failure.

The importance of the problem speaks for itself; creativity can be intrinsically rewarding, but the motivation for creativity increases when employees feel that they are meaningful.

What is the process of organizational learning?

Organizational learning is the process whereby managers encourage all members of an organization to find new ways for the effective functioning of the organization. According to learning theorist Senge, there are five core activities that are essential for organizational learning:

• Stimulating skills management and self-efficacy

• Developing complex mental schemas about activities

• Promoting group and teamwork

• Conveying a collective vision

• Promoting system thinking

An important aspect of organizational learning is knowledge management. This means that the manager is able to ensure that the knowledge that employees acquire during their work they then share with each other. This knowledge is not always officially or consciously recorded. By stimulating the sharing of work-related knowledge, the entire organization can benefit from it.

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that is brought about by experience or practice. Three important elements of this definition are change, permanence, and experience.