Summary of Mastery in Coaching by Passmore - 1st edition

Over the past two decades, coaching has shown a rise in popularity that seems unstoppable. In this first chapter, it will be discussed what it means to be a master in coaching and how to measure coaching. Further, a brief discussion of the existing literature about the effectiveness of coaching will be discussed. Yet, what is coaching? And what is meant by 'mastery' in coaching? Using the term 'mastery' already indicates that coaching is a skill. Although scientific knowledge underlies this skill, coaching is foremost about the application of the skill, similar to that a chef of surgeon has to understand the science of food or the human body, as well as being able to master the use of their tools.

How to assess coaching?

While competencies have emerged over the past years, work needs to be done to refine these, making them more behaviourally based, so it is possible to observe the behaviour during an assessed coaching session, as well as to underpin each aspect with evidence. This is a hard task and the field is still struggling to fully achieve this after more than fifty years of attempts of codifying intervention methods. Despite some challenges, we now have methods for assessing levels of competence and thus mastery and an evidence base which supports our knowledge of whether coaching works, what coaching can positively impact upon and how it works. 

What are the characteristics of the AC Executive Coaching Framework?

To assess coaching, a number of models of competence have been offered. One of these, is called the AC's Executive Coaching Framework, which can be visualized by three overlapping constructs: (1) relationship; (2) being, and; (3) doing. AC stands for Association for Coaching, a professional organization that played a significant role in the development and professionalization of coaching. The Association for Coaching Framework uses the following coach competencies for general or all coaches:

1. Meeting ethical, legal and professional guidelines.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) acts ethically and with the highest integrity; (b) clearly communicates how coaching is different from other helping professions. 
2. Establishing the coaching agreement and outcomes.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) clearly explains the coaching process and own coaching approach, models and techniques; (b) helps the client to establish coaching goals and outcomes and agrees an approach to working with the client that will achieve them.
3. Establishing a trust-based relationship with the client.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) treats people equally and fairly, with respect and dignity; (b) is optimistic for and encourages self-belief in the client.
4. Managing self and maintaining coaching presence.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) pays close attention to the client, staying fully present and engaged; (b) remains focuses on the agreed client agenda and outcomes.
5. Communicating effectively.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) communicates clearly, confidently and credibly with the client; (b) adapts communication style to reflect the client's needs and outcomes.
6. Raising awareness and insight.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) asks questions to challenge the assumptions of the client, to elicit new insights and to raise self-awareness and gain learning; (b) helps to broaden a client's perception of an issue and challenges to stimulate new possibilities.
7. Designing strategies and actions.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) supports the client to build strategies to meet their outcome; (b) provides support while the client tries out new ways of working/behaviours.
8. Maintaining forward momentum and evaluation.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) maintains an outcome-focuses approach; (b) checks and acknowledges client progress and achievements.
9. Undertaking continuous coach development.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) regularly requests client feedback; (b) participates in regular coaching supervision to reflect on, and improve, own practice.

Additionally, some additional competencies are formulated for executive coaches:

1. Working within the organizational context.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) understands the organizational context in which the client operates, that is, is aware of the long term vision, mission, values, strategic objectives, competitive pressures and so on; (b) is aware of, and works with, the organization's values, policies and practices, including human resource and people policies and practices. 
2. Understanding leadership issues.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) recognizes the challenges faced by leaders working in organizations; (b) identifies ways of, and opportunities for, developing leadership behaviours and attributes through coaching.
3. Working in partnership with the organization.
   Example indicators of competence: (a) develops relevant networks and strategic partnerships in the organization; (b) identifies ways of adding value to the client at both the individual, team, and organizational level. 

Is coaching magic?

Still too often, people lay claim to the 'magic of coaching', or that coaching is the solution to all organizational and personal problems, like a 'silver bullet'. However, coaching is no magic, and the coach is not a magician. Scientific research has come to the general conclusion that outcomes are influenced by the ability of the coach to build and maintain a relationship with their client, along with wider competence in adapting to and working with a wide range of individuals, issues and frameworks responding in the moment flexibility and empathically towards their client. In fact, the number of such randomized controlled trial (RCT) studies has rapidly increased since 2000, showing the positive effects of coaching on client's wellbeing, learning and skills development. Research has also shown that change is hard work and occurs slowly over time. The work achieved by clients, supported by their coaches, is not magic, but human.

Recently, statistical techniques have allowed meta-studies to supersede the RCT studies as the ultimate research methodology for demonstrating impact, as measured by effect size, often described as g. The effect size is considered small if it is below 0.3. It is moderate between 0.31 and 0.5, and it is considered large when it is over 0.5. Meta-analysis involves combining research from different RCT studies, with the aim of identifying patterns among study results. In the simplest form, the average effect size from the included studies is used. Next, it is weighted relative to the sample sizes within the individual studies, to reduce the impact of small-scale studies on the overall results. By combining results, meta-analysis removes variables such as differences in individual population groups, researchers or individual coaches. The meta-analysis results provide therefore a more accurate view as to the effect or impact of a particular method. 

Recent meta-studies combined with the growing literature on coaching using RCT methodologies, provides conclusive evidence that coaching does work. With this knowledge, practitioners can now support their claims with scientific evidence. The power of coaching is not magic, it is science. 

In the third chapter, psycodynamic coaching will be discussed. The core aim of psychodynamic coaching is to create change with a purpose, which implies that the change is realistic and permanent. By acknowledging and providing insight into someone's own history, personal patterns, inner structure, as well as into the present and its dynamics, the coachee is enabled to combine past, present and wishes for the future with realistic and feasible actions. Typically, psychodynamic coaching focuses on the individual, but it may also help a group who want to understand and change some aspect(s) of life. Hence, central is the wish for change. Psychodynamic coaching starts out from the idea that what is going on now in life is not happening by chance, but it is connected with things that happened earlier. The underlying patterns that originate in childhood have an important bearing on the way situations will be managed later in life. 

What is the theoretical foundation of psychodynamic coaching?

Psychodynamic coaching draws on a variety of theories encompassing personality, development, couples and close relations, groups and organizations. These, both the older classical theories and the newest theories of mentalization, are discussed briefly below. 

Psychodynamic personality and developmental psychology 

The primary theory on which psychodynamic coaching is built, is Freud's concept of the 'unconscious'. The unconscious can be defined as the unintended transformation of motive (changes, distortions, redirections of intellectual impulses, wishes or intentions). The fact that we have something 'unconscious' in us implies that we do things, think thoughts, and have feelings that in reality arise from different motives from the ones we are aware and convinced of. When our own actions or the actions of other people are not immediately understandable, for example disproportionate outbursts of anger, or an appointment is forgotten that we really knew we made, when something is suddenly impossible, or we accidentally say something different from what we meant (a Freudian slip of the tongue), we often explain it away as unconscious. Psychodynamic coaching then is an attempt to open up and include.

Further theories have been developed by clinically oriented researchers about how our personalities are formed and what role early childhood plays. One of these researchers is Erikson (1977) who was studying the 'ego development': How do I become me? How do I develop myself? According to Freud's structural personality model, it is the task of the ego to solve the conflict between the id (instinctual impulses) and the superego (moral or social control and will). Next, Erikson added the epigenetic model, in which he drew attention to the fact that development does not end with childhood, but that we develop continually all through life. 

Another theory that is involved here is the theory of attachment of John Bowlby (1988) and his concept of 'inner working model' that is derived from it. Bowlby was in particular concerned with the significance of the mother-and-child relationship, but also with the other family relationships and how the mother and child interact with them. The distinctive feature of good attachment is that the individual can form bonds with others (and to systems, groups and organizations), and can also detach from them again.

All these theories combined have made it possible that the concept of the unconscious has moved from being understood as something that belonged and was resistant solely in the individual (in body and mind) to the understanding that it is not bound to time and place, but rather is more a matter of relationships and reflection. The unconscious is to be found inside and individual and between people in relationships. We can discover the unconsciousness in the moments when it is revealed and becomes visible to the inner eye, and therefore to the consciousness. It is precisely in this transformation from unconsciousness to consciousness that liberation takes place and the possibilities appear.

Psychodynamic group psychology

The theoretical background of psychodynamic theory also comprises theories about groups and what happens in groups. The group is an independent unit that requires its own concepts. Different theories focus on different parts of the group. For instance, Foulkes (1984, 1964) considers the group primarily as a healing and constructive phenomenon. Humans are social; the individual has been formed as the result of the development in the community. Consequently, people's problems, difficulties and psychological dysfunction must also be understood as having arisen in social networks. He created the concept of the matrix, which is a superordinate for the total states in the group. It consists of the basic matrix and the dynamic matrix. The basic matrix refers to what the members of the group have in common. The dynamic matrix consists of the specific, that is, where the members are different from each other, such as their history, their personalities and their current situations. A core concept of Foulkes is to grasp what happens in the group as a whole (reflection), which is an overall designation for the projections, identifications and anti-identifications that go on between the members. Next, condensation is connected to the way that in-group feelings can be released, as members stimulate each other to do so. Further, resonance means that there is a sympathic response in the group. When one person in the group says something, there will be different responses from different members, depending on who they are. One special type of resonance is called polarization, which occurs when something arouses opposing feelings in the group. 

Another theory is that of Bion (1961), who sees the group as a place where primitive and destructive processes occur. The group tendency is not an instinct, but one of conditions of the human live. The basic assumption state described the state the members get into when the individuals regress because of a threat into a primitive defence position, where individuality disappears and the sense of reality is weakened. On the other hand, there is the working group state, which occurs when it is oriented towards reality and working to achieve a task. Bion identified three general basic assumption states: dependency group, the fight or flight group, and the pairing group.

Psychodynamic organizational psychology: the system theory

In psychodynamic coaching, the individual is always considered as part of a system. A system (such as family, school, or peer groups) often consists of several subsystems, and the interaction between these is described in inter-group psychology, where all the members of the group are understood as the single individuals they are, but at the same time each is a representative of the whole group. 

How to apply psychodynamic coaching in practice?

The aim of psychodynamic coaching is to create development and learning for the coachee. In this wish, there is often a concealed wish for greater freedom. Freedom to work out what one wants, and freedom to let go of the goals that are unrealistic and feel comfortable about doing so. Freedom to stand still and reflect. Freedom from pressure and frustation. Freedom is not similar to independence. Rather, freedom is 'destruction plus movement'. 

Psychodynamic coaching in practice consists of four steps:

1. The first contact.
2. The first coaching session: the goal and the framework.
3. The course of coaching: investigation, hypotheses and acknowledgements.
4. Conclusion, evaluation and leave-taking.

The first contact almost always offers a lot of information of what the unconscious problem is behind the presenting problem, so the coach's works begins right from the first contact. It is beneficial to establish a fixed working method of registering, such that it becomes a routine. The first coaching session then is the first physical meeting between the coach and coachee. Here, two factors are important: the psychological contract and the conclusion of definite agreements on the goal, the costs and the framework. What does the coachee want to change? How does he want things to be at the end of the process? How many sessions should be planned, and how often should sessions be held? It is important that the coachee shares the responsibility for these things. Next, it is time for the course of coaching: investigation, hypotheses and acknowledgements about the present situation. Next, the coach and coachee move on to the future: the expectation of what is to come and what is desired. In doing so, it is important to set realistic goals. Finally, continual evaluations of the process are made with reference to the initially defined goal, and then rounded off with an overall evaluation and summing up of the contributions of both coach and coachee and their joint efforts.

When does psychodynamic coaching work best?

Psychodynamic coaching is most suitable when the client has a feeling that current problem is connected to the past. When the problem has shown to be complex and impossible to solve and when there are many systems, roles and emotions involved. Psychodynamic coaching can be applied to both individuals and groups. 

In the third chapter, psycodynamic coaching will be discussed. The core aim of psychodynamic coaching is to create change with a purpose, which implies that the change is realistic and permanent. By acknowledging and providing insight into someone's own history, personal patterns, inner structure, as well as into the present and its dynamics, the coachee is enabled to combine past, present and wishes for the future with realistic and feasible actions. Typically, psychodynamic coaching focuses on the individual, but it may also help a group who want to understand and change some aspect(s) of life. Hence, central is the wish for change. Psychodynamic coaching starts out from the idea that what is going on now in life is not happening by chance, but it is connected with things that happened earlier. The underlying patterns that originate in childhood have an important bearing on the way situations will be managed later in life. 

In the fifth chapter, the gestalt approach to coaching will be discussed. A gestalt is a shape, pattern, configuration, the structural whole, the totality of a person, an organization or pattern of data. It is something that is whole in itself. In other words, gestalt refers to a unified or meaningful whole. The aim of the gestalt therapeutic approach is a process of becoming aware of what one is doing, how sone is doing it, and how one can change himself or herself, and at the same time, learn to accept and value himself or herself. Awareness and acceptance lead to wholeness through integration. 

How has gestalt coaching developed?

Pioneers to the field of gestalt coaching were Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941). Their idea of an 'interpreted world' radically changed the belief that there is an independent, objective reality. 

The originator of gestalt theory is Fritz Perls (1893-1970). Perls had a very rigorous and uncompromising attitude to how 'authentic' the therapist needed to be in the relationship with the client in order to help the client in 'confronting himself'. The intention of a very 'full' experience of the coachee, the coach, and the relationship between them in the here and now is a central part of a gestalt coaching therapy.

Fundamentally, gestalt is a holistic approach, so it makes sense that, in addition to the two developments described above, a third root of gestalt coaching is the practice of gestalt thinking with wider systems (such as families, teams and organizations). Work in this field is offered by, among others, Stanley Herman and Michael Korenich (1977) and Edwin Nevis (1987). 

Currently, there are shifts ongoing in the context of organizational work that may bring gestalt coaching more to the fore. There is a greater acceptance that individual, and indeed organizational, ability to thrive in an increasingly complex, ambiguous and uncertain context requires working with what is fuzzy and emergent. Gestalt coaching approaches embracing this context are growing in popularity. Further, gestalt coaching may have particular resonance as the concept of embodied and integrated leadership moves to a more central focus. 

What is the evidence base of gestalt coaching and what are the core theoretical elements?

Four numbers of core principles for gestalt coaching have been identified:

• The gestalt principle of perceptual organization: how we perceive things is the result of who we are at one moment in time. Further, we are predisposed to group similar things together, to see patterns, to see smooth lines or continuity where there might in fact be discontinuity and to see wholes, to make connections without conscious awareness that there was a gap to be filled. 
• Phenomenology: if perception and reality are subjective, then inciting the client to be curious about what they see, using descriptive methods rather than analytical methods, is of value. A careful, phenomenological approach to building awareness is likely to lead to developmental growth by, among others, allowing information we might usually judgementally filter out of conscious awareness actually come into our consciousness through acceptance and non-judgement.
• Dialogic existentialism: in gestalt approaches we exist at the point of dialogue with another. The medium by which awareness is realized in gestalt coaching is through dialogue at the contact boundary, that is, the boundary of self and other, by which we mean the individual's experience of what is 'me' and 'not me'. 
• Field theory: the pattern of data moves and shifts, bearing similarities, but never exactly the same as that which went before. Dynamic change is a constant in the gestalt worldview. Each moment is interrelated with others and includes the gestalt coach, the coachee and all that arrives with them. 

What might a gestalt coaching practice include?

One common practice tool is the cycle of experience: the process of becoming aware, individually or collectively, of what is going on at any moment. It is a seven stage cycle that might start with the client feeling not comfortable at all (sensation) and fear up until rest (final contact). The seven stages are:

1. Sensation
2. Awareness
3. Mobilization of energy
4. Action
5. Final contact
6. Satisfaction
7. Withdrawal

Allowing the initial sensation to develop into full awareness feeds into new cycles as different options and choices emerge, leading to even greater awareness. It follows that cycles of experience flow into one another, so rather than a discrete circle, a wave can be depicted which describes the flow of continuous experience. In doing so, there is not one wave, but multiple. Many aspects competing for attention, many possible figures that can be attended to. Slowing down to the present moment to increase our awareness of moments, to become fully aware of an experience, allows us to see so much more and hold a greater awareness of possible choices at any one time.

A second tool is blocks to awareness. Blocks to awareness are ways of creatively adjusting to reduce the level of contact experienced. These blocks occur at the contact boundary (self/other) and are not in themselves positive or negative adjustments. Instead, they need to be viewed in the context of the current situation. For example, I might have a hollow feeling in my stomach and interpret this as hunger. As I am in a meeting, I have no other option that to deflect the sensation and now allow hunger awareness to fully form. An appropriate response in the short term, but habitually blocking gestalt formation and completion at other points in the cycle may have an unhealthy impact over time. Desensitization is about turning away from a sensation and not allowing it to come into full awareness (such as the hunger in the example). Yet, if we are too de-sensitized, we lose touch with our self, those around us and the situations we are in.

When might a gestalt approach be most suitable?

When used in isolation from a gestalt stance (that is reduced to tools and techniques), gestalt practices could lead to an overwhelm for a client, suddenly faced with a lot of sensations and data that they (or the coach) have little skills or experiences to process. This in turn could lead to some panic and withdrawal of contact. Keeping people inside a circle of 'tried and tested' again and again, where nothing is ventured, is not likely to lead to new perspectives and choices. Hence, it is important to skilfully create the coaching space. The coach should create a coaching space that (a) suits the figural and; (b) might be useful in terms of the zone of proximal development, as part of (c) enabling greater awareness. In doing so, reciprocally (c) serves the other two. 

In the fifth chapter, the gestalt approach to coaching will be discussed. A gestalt is a shape, pattern, configuration, the structural whole, the totality of a person, an organization or pattern of data. It is something that is whole in itself. In other words, gestalt refers to a unified or meaningful whole. The aim of the gestalt therapeutic approach is a process of becoming aware of what one is doing, how sone is doing it, and how one can change himself or herself, and at the same time, learn to accept and value himself or herself. Awareness and acceptance lead to wholeness through integration. 

This chapter discusses the characteristics and application of cognitive behavioural coaching. Cognitive behavioural coaching (CBC) is underpinned by the theory that thought and beliefs about a situation shape emotions and that these emotions generated by the beliefs shape behaviours and actions. In other words: thoughts and beliefs > emotions > behaviours and actions. Cognitive behavioural coaching has been a growing practice since the early 1990s. CBC is frequently applied in business contexts. In this chapter, CBC is defined as: an integrative approach which combines the use of cognitive, behavioural, imaginal and problem-solving techniques and strategies within a cognitive behavioural framework to enable clients to achieve their realistic goals. CBC is a cooperative model between coach and client. This collaboration is key as, for change to occur, the client needs to accept responsibility for their part of the process. To change thoughts, beliefs and behaviours requires hard work and reinforcement. The remainder of this chapter will introduce examples of models and methods of cognitive behavioural coaching and how these are being applied in both business and personal life. In addition, some theoretical background of CBC will be discussed briefly. 

What is the evidence base of cognitive behavioural coaching?

CBC is supported by a substantial amount of books, articles and journals. CBC has become well recognized as a validated therapeutic approach within clinical settings and is the recommended treatment for a wide range of psychological problems, as classified by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines since 2005. Moreover, it has become the most important and best validated psychotherapeutic approach. The underlying research supports the case that CBC is successful in:

• Helping clients to manage emotions such as fer, anxiety, anger and rejection. 
• Transforming pessimistic or negative thinkers into optimistic and rational-constructive thinkers with a beneficial impact on positive affect and motivation.
• Goal striving and attainment with measurable changes in performance and motivation.
• Sales results.
• Study revision for both young and adult students.
• Confidence, self-esteem, authenticity.
• Psychological wellbeing. 

The success of CBC is determined to a large extent by the relationship that develops between the coach and client at the offset. Clarity of expression, roles and responsibilities enables both to know what action they personally need to take. The client understands boundaries, timescale and their own commitment to change by accepting the necessity to undertake home assignments between sessions. In addition, multiple studies have demonstrated the benefits of helping clients to tune into and develop more constructive and positive thought patterns. 

An integral part of the coaching process is questioning. Questioning aims to enable the client to challenge their own perceptions and shape new perspectives. The Socratic style of questioning is fundamental to CBC. Socratic questioning is a form of disciplined questioning that can be used to pursue thought in many directions and for many purposes, including: to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of things, to open up issues and problems, to uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts, to distinguish what we know from what we do not know, to follow out logical consequences of thought or to control discussions. Socratic questioning is based on the foundation that thinking has structured logic, and allows underlying thoughts to be questioned. The key to distinguishing Socratic questioning from questioning per se is that the former is systematic, disciplined, deep and usually focuses on fundamental concepts, principles, theories, issues or problems.

Another essential ingredient to managing change is flexibility of thinking. All emotions shape adaptive behaviours but negative emotions have been shown to lead to dysfunction, including negative social interactions and reactivity. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (developed by Barbara Fredrickson) enables clients to develop an expanded repertoire of desired action, which is an integral part of CBC, enabling individuals to see that they have more options as to how they approach situations than they may have previously realized they had. 

Research has shown that CBC is linked to increased student performance, greater teacher efficacy and satisfaction, higher levels of conceptual thinking among teachers and more professional, collaborative cultured. Combined cognitive behavioural coaching is more effective than behavioural coaching alone or cognitive coaching alone. 

Other studies have shown that CBC is effective in the treatment of perfectionism and self-handicapping in a non-clinical environment. Further, CBC is effective for sales training. The participants achieved for example a 20 percent improvement in the proportion of salespeople 'on target'. It also has been connected to a reduced rate of resignations (it reduced by a factor three). 

How to apply CBC in practice?

Applying CBC can be done using the following five phases: 

1. Initiating the coaching programme.
2. Developing client awareness of cognitive habits. 
3. Challenging and reframing unhelpful thoughts and behaviours
4. Developing new approaches to problem situations.
5. Reviewing and integrating change. 

Initiation and pre-coaching questionnaire

The initiation of the coaching programme is very important. The client needs to understand the underlying philosophy and principles of CBC. They need to understand that the way they think about a situation determines the meaning and emotion they attach to it, which in turn shapes the behaviour and actions. Next to explaining the principles and theory of CBC, the coach and client should discuss and agree roles, responsibilities and expectations and a contract can be signed. Next, a pre-coaching questionnaire can provide a solid start to the coaching process before the first session. In such a questionnaire, the client can be asked to identify the specific situations they find difficult and begin to tune into the thoughts experienced when they face these challenges. By doing so, the clients may begin to understand how their thoughts are shaping feelings and how these feelings influence behaviour and actions. Both the pre-coaching questionnaire and the coaching contract enable the coach and client to understand some of the key issues right at the start of the coaching process. 

The ABCDE model

Next, the ABCDE model is useful to help clients see how they ave been hampering their happiness or performance and also as a model to help them plan how to achieve success in the future. The ABCDE model consists of the following parts:

• Activating situation.
• Beliefs, thoughts and expectations of the situation.
• Consequences of feeling behaviour and impact.
• Disputing whether current approach was (a) helpful, (b) logical, or (c) empirical?
• Exchange response to new (a) thoughts, (b) feelings, (c) behaviours, (d) images.

For example, the coach could ask:

• "Might other people hold a different viewpoint of this situation?" in order to broaden the client's perspectives.
• "You say .... What evidence do you have to support this idea?" in order to get to the specific truth and reality within a situation.
• "What is the worst that could happen?" in order to help the client to put the situation in perspective and to explore realistic potential outcomes. 
• "When you think like this, how does it impact how you feel and act?" in order to help the client to evaluate the impact of this style of thinking and to check whether it is helping or hampering the client to achieve their goals.
• "Can you think of someone else you know who is experiencing a similar situation? How might you advise them to manage it?" in order to help the client distance themselves and gain greater objectivity.

Socratic questioning

Next to the ABCDE model, the Socratic questioning method can be used to enable a coach to help the client identify where their thinking has become illogical or where they may have absorbed another person's opinion without reflection. Socratic questioning has already been defined in an earlier part of this chapter, where the evidence base of CBC was discussed. You may consider reading that part again to study on the definition of Socratic questioning. 

Suppress hyperarousal 

Sometimes, certain circumstances impair someone's ability to think clearly and rationally. For instance, prolonged physical arousal is associated with disturbing emotions such as stress, anger or anxiety. This may in turn interfere with someone's clarity of thought, as limbic system hyperarousal triggers a state of heightened reactivity. Helping the client to understand the mind-body responses to prolonged or chronic stress enables them to understand what they need to do. The coach can teach the client to become 'breath aware' by monitoring whether the breath is in the upper chest, which would signify stress, instead of using diaphragmatic breathing, which reduces hyperarousal, raises CO₂ and lowers blood pressure. 

Thinking style sheet

Another instrument that can be used is the thinking style sheet, which consists of the following elements: 

• Thinking style
• Record of situations that trigger this style of thinking
• Personal experience (thoughts, physiology, emotions, behaviours, consequences)

This instrument can be used to collect a record of the various cognitive distortions together with space for the client to record how they are responding to specific situations or relationships in their own lives. It also enables them to assess the consequences and impact of their current thinking patterns on their life, work, and relationships. An example:

• Thinking style: overgeneralization ("this will never work")
• Record of situations that trigger this style of thinking: experiencing a restructure at work.
• Personal experience: "not another restructure". Leads to anxiety and resentment. Behaviours in the new regime become defensive and unhelpful.

Another example:

• Thinking style: blaming ("it is all his fault!")
• Record of situations that trigger this style of thinking: perceived parental neglect. 
• Personal experience: "It is my father's fault. He always criticized me and has made me feel useless". Leads to a pattern of being a vicitim in other situations accentuating the feeling of helplessness, pointing fingers at others for having more power. 

PRACTICE problem-solving model 

In order for clients to make changes in their lives, the CBC coach helps them to develop more flexible and creative ways of solving problems. As humans are deeply habitual and tend to revert to old patterns when they are stressed, clients tend to find it useful to follow a defined process. One such defined process or model is de PRACTICE problem-solving model:

• Problem identification.
• Realistic goal setting, setting goals that are SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, results-focused, time-bound).
• Alternative solutions and courses of action generated.
• Consideration of consequences of each alternative solution, considering pros and cons.
• Target the most feasible and desirable solution(s).
• Implement the Chosen solution(s) by rehearsing strategies and behaviours by means of imaginary and practical actions.
• Evaluate methods, actions and efforts, review what has been learnt and reconsider the problem in the light of specific approaches and solutions. 

PE-P model

Another useful approach is the PE-P model.

• Stage one: Problem
  • Clearly identify the problem you want to solve.
  • Consider why you want to solve it.
• Stage two: Emotion
  • Recognize and accept the emotion inspired by the problem.
  • Identify the thoughts, images, beliefs and expectations that trigger the emotion.
  • Use the ABC model to develop more rational thinking patterns.
• Stage three: Plan
  • Develop a practical and achievable plan (a personal management plan).

Reviewing and integrating change

Change is difficult. First, the client needs to believe in the value of coach programme in order to be persuaded to take action. Further, CBC coaches will be checking with clients regularly to review together what is working and what is not. Based on this review, the coach can adapt their methods to the client's learning styles in order to ensure that they are supporting the change process as effectively as possible. Next, repetition and practice of new approaches is essential to the integration of change. Finally, compassion and the reinforcement of fallibility supports clients to keep motivated through setbacks. 

Imagery can be very effective in enabling a client to rehearse the new behaviours before carrying them out in the real world. Further, as the client is expected to become their own coach, it can be effective to suggest that they read books alongside the coaching programme. This is also called bibliocoaching. 

When might CBC be most suitable?

CBC is applied in a wide variety of fields. It has been applied with children in schools, students, adults in careers, managers and professionals managing everyday workplace challenges, people facing redundancy or retirement or recovering from illness, team sports, and so forth. As the theories and methods of CBC are becoming more integrated with other approaches, which are described in other chapters of this book, CBC offers the coach a holistic and diverse selection of techniques to keep in their toolbox. This enables them to adapt their approach to the specific needs of the client. 

This chapter discusses the characteristics and application of cognitive behavioural coaching. Cognitive behavioural coaching (CBC) is underpinned by the theory that thought and beliefs about a situation shape emotions and that these emotions generated by the beliefs shape behaviours and actions. In other words: thoughts and beliefs > emotions > behaviours and actions. Cognitive behavioural coaching has been a growing practice since the early 1990s. CBC is frequently applied in business contexts. In this chapter, CBC is defined as: an integrative approach which combines the use of cognitive, behavioural, imaginal and problem-solving techniques and strategies within a cognitive behavioural framework to enable clients to achieve their realistic goals. CBC is a cooperative model between coach and client. This collaboration is key as, for change to occur, the client needs to accept responsibility for their part of the process. To change thoughts, beliefs and behaviours requires hard work and reinforcement. The remainder of this chapter will introduce examples of models and methods of cognitive behavioural coaching and how these are being applied in both business and personal life. In addition, some theoretical background of CBC will be discussed briefly. 

This chapter discusses the characteristics and application of compassionate mind coaching. Compassionate mind coaching (CMC) involves a progressive series of exercises and practices derived from mindfulness, compassion, Buddhism and other therapeutic and coaching approaches. CMC suggests that in order for people to make progress in their lives, it is better if they get in touch with their own and other people's suffering and to take steps to alleviate and prevent such suffering in the future. CMC is commonly applied with clients who engage in excessive self-monitoring, are self-critical, are shame-prone, and lack confidence. It aims to change thoughts like 'I am a failure' into 'Well, it is a new skill, everybody struggles to begin with, but with practice I will gradually improve and I cannot expect myself to be so good right now'. It is important for the coach to be familiar with the background of the client's self-monitoring system and the degree to which that is harsh, aggressive or even hating, and to get better at helping their clients to start mindfully noticing the emotional tone of their self-monitoring system, as well as to help clients to generate different emotions when they are trying to be helpful to themselves, such as affiliation, acceptance and kindness. 

What is the evidence base of compassionate mind coaching?

There is a growing amount of evidence that self-compassion is linked to psychological health and well-being. Individuals who are self-compassionate experience better psychological health, lower levels of anxiety and depression, lower cortisol levels, increased heart-rate variability, less rumination, perfectionism and suppression of unwanted thoughts, and a greater willingness to accept negative emotions as valid and important. In addition, self-compassion has also been linked to psychological strengths, such as happiness, optimism, wisdom, curiosity and exploration, personal initiative and emotional intelligence. 

Given the benefits of self-compassion, it makes sense for coaches to explore this option in their sessions. But can different aspects of compassion, including self-compassion, be increased with training and practice? The short answer is: yes. Several compassion programmes now exists, including: Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT), Compassionate Mind Training (CMT), Compassion Cultivation Training (CCT) and a Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) programme. The latter is studied and the researchers found a significant effect in self-compassion, mindfulness and various wellbeing outcomes, both briefly after the intervention as well as during the 12-month follow-up measurement. Taken all studies together, we can conclude that compassionate mind coaching interventions lead to significant improvements in physical and psychological functioning in a wide range of populations. 

How to apply compassionate mind coaching in practice?

For coaches to apply compassionate mind coaching in practice, the author suggests to consider the following models and concepts: the old brain, new brain model; the three circles model of emotional regularity; it is not your fault; compassion; mindfulness; positive emotion; multiple selves; who is running the show?; and imagery. 

The old brain, new brain model

The old brain, new brain model suggests that there are two brain parts: the old brain is shared with our reptile ancestors. This brain is used for the base functions: feeding, fighting, fleeing and mating. The new brain is unique to humans and involves processes such as self-monitoring, reflection, thinking, imagination and mentalizing. A skilful coach can use the old brain, new brain model to help their client to understand that many of their problems stem from the way the brain has evolved, and that they (like other humans) have tricky brains containing different parts which are not well integrated and that can get them trapped in unhelpful loops and patterns. The coach can also use this model to make clear that 'this is not your fault' as well as helping clients to better understand why they can and do experience such a disconnect between their thoughts and feelings. 

The three circles model of emotional regularity

The three circles model is used by coaches to help their clients understand how three evolved, basic functional emotional systems interrelate and become unbalanced. The three types of affect regulation system are:

1. Driven, excited, vitality
   • Incentive / resource focused
   • Wanting pursuing, achieving, consuming
   • Activating
2. Content, safe, connected
   • Non-wanting / affiliative-focused
   • Safeness, kindness
   • Soothing
3. Anger, anxiety, disgust
   • Threat-focused
   • Protection and safety-seeking
   • Activating / inhibiting 

Coaches use this model to help clients see in what way their emotional regulation system may have become unbalanced and to explore the benefits of spending less them in threat or drive mode and more time in safe, contented, recovery mode.

Who is running the show?

Other ways to apply compassionate mind coaching is to focus on positive emotions, mindfulness, it is not your fault, compassion and imagery. A final tool is the following. One may ask the question: 'who is running the show?'. The idea that each of us contains a range of 'selves' within us is applied here. That we all have a 'critical' self (our inner critic), an 'angry' self, an 'anxious' self, a 'compassionate' self and so forth. These different 'selves' can take centre stage when different situations arise, and that may not always be beneficial. Compassionate mind coaches may ask the client which of their 'selves' they want to be (generally) running their lives. Assuming the client would choose their wise, compassionate, kind self to be generally running their lives, the coach lets the client know that it that is the self that they will be working on together. 

What practical tools and techniques are available for compassionate mind coaching?

The first tool is psychoeducation. Clients typically do not know that much about how their brain has evolved or how the emotions they experience are regulated outside their conscious awareness. So it is important that the coach educates the client about these concepts and theories. 

Secondly, it is important that the client is motivated in order to not only start, but also persist with compassionate mind practices. Skilful coaches help their clients to discover their own motivations for doing compassionate mind training, and then strengthen these reasons while building client self-efficacy or confidence about changing. 

Thirdly, the coach will support the client in actually applying these compassionate mind training practices. In doing so, it is important that the coach does not overwhelm or overload their client with too much mindfulness and visualization activity too soon. It takes time to develop these skills, neural pathways and connections which underly and enable compassionate mind practices. 

Other tools and techniques that are briefly described in this section are:

• Soothing breathing rhythm.
• Body scan with compassionate focus.
• Mindfulness sitting practice and experiential acceptance.
• Creating a safe place.
• Visualizing a compassionate colour.
• Cultivating a compassionate image.
• Cultivating the compassionate self.
• Cultivating the wish to be well and happy.
• Cultivating compassion towards others.
• Cultivating compassion for different aspects of oneself.
• Exploring self-compassion through writing.

When might compassionate mind coaching be most suitable?

Compassionate mind coaching is in particular helpful for:

• Clients who seem to have a very strong or harsh inner critics, who beat themselves up a lot and who find it hard to escape from negative self-talk.
• Clients who seem to have an overactive threat-focused system, experiencing unhelpful levels of fear, anger and / or anxiety.
• Clients who seem to have an overactive drive-focused system, experiencing unhelpful levels of wanting, desiring, pursuing, consuming and competing.
• Clients who seem excessively concerned with rank, doing well compared to others, or to be better than others, or who need to prove themselves to themselves, an important other, a dead parent, and so forth. 

This chapter discusses the characteristics and application of compassionate mind coaching. Compassionate mind coaching (CMC) involves a progressive series of exercises and practices derived from mindfulness, compassion, Buddhism and other therapeutic and coaching approaches. CMC suggests that in order for people to make progress in their lives, it is better if they get in touch with their own and other people's suffering and to take steps to alleviate and prevent such suffering in the future. CMC is commonly applied with clients who engage in excessive self-monitoring, are self-critical, are shame-prone, and lack confidence. It aims to change thoughts like 'I am a failure' into 'Well, it is a new skill, everybody struggles to begin with, but with practice I will gradually improve and I cannot expect myself to be so good right now'. It is important for the coach to be familiar with the background of the client's self-monitoring system and the degree to which that is harsh, aggressive or even hating, and to get better at helping their clients to start mindfully noticing the emotional tone of their self-monitoring system, as well as to help clients to generate different emotions when they are trying to be helpful to themselves, such as affiliation, acceptance and kindness. 

This last chapter describes the motivational interviewing approach. Motivational interviewing (MI) a directive, client-centered counselling style for eliciting behaviour change by helping clients to explore and resolve ambivalence. It was originally developed as an intervention to address drugs and alcohol addiction within the health care sector. Nowadays, it is used and found to be effective in various domains and under different conditions. MI is most centrally defined not by technique but by its spirit as a facilitative style for interpersonal relationship. 

What is the evidence base of motivational interviewing?

MI is supported by a substantial amount or research evidence, gathered from hundreds of studies in a wide range of settings from health to organizations. In the remainder of this section, two questions are answered: (1) Does MI work? (2) What are the active ingredients within MI?

Does MI work?

There are more than 650 outcome studies on MI. It has also been subjected to 18 meta-analyses and several systematic reviews on its effectiveness. To summarize all these studies, it can be said that a wide range of meta-studies have found that MI is a highly effective intervention for a wide range of clinical presenting issues and that it is as effective as equivalent levels of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and is even more effective than CBT for some types of presenting issues. In addition, the results achieved appear to be sustainable over longer periods of time, suggesting that MI is highly effective at delivering sustained behavioural change for even the most challenging of habituated behaviours. 

What are the active ingredients within MI?

Why is MI so powerful? What are the active ingredients? The six active ingredients of MI appear to be:

1. Actively listening to the language of the client.
2. Recognizing changes in language as signals of changes in attitude.
3. Formulating questions and affirmations which echo changes in the language of the client.
4. Building discrepancy in the mind of the client between the new thoughts and recent past behaviours.
5. Consistency in the behaviour of the coach. 
6. Using feedback as a tool.

What practical tools and techniques are available for MI?

The spirit

The spirit of MI is characterized by the following three adjectives:

• Evocative: MI tries to draw things out from the client, instead of put things in.
• Collaborative: MI is an approach in which coach and client work together in partnership.
• Autonomy supporting: in MI the client is always the active decision maker. 

The principles

Next, the principles of MI are summarized with the acronym RULE which stands for:

• Resist the righting reflex, that is the natural tendency in humans to want to fix things and to make them better.
• Understand and explore the motivation of the client.
• Listen with empathy.
• Empower the client, encourage hope and optimism.

In addition to the RULE principles, some extra principles have been added to MI:

• Roll with resistance: minimize the manifestation of resistance and adapt to reduce resistance, as opposed to confronting and directly challenging.
• Information sharing: sometimes the information is not there, the coach has to share it so that the client can make an informed decision.
• Develop discrepancy: helping clients to become more aware of the gap between how things are right now and how they would like things to be.

The core skills 

Some of the core skills, also called micro-skills, of MI coaches are described in this section. The MI coach seeks to ask open questions. Open questions encourage the client to talk more than closed questions. Instead of asking 'Could you ...' it is preferred to ask a question like 'Why do you want to ...?' or 'What do you think might be most helpful?' Next, MI coaches make affirmations: statements recognizing and acknowledging some aspect of client effort or character. For example, the coach could say: 'You are the kind of person who sticks with things once you have made up your mind'. Further, MI coaches commonly use reflective listening or accurate empathy statements to check whether they understand the client correctly, helping the client to feel understood and perhaps even to generate some insight in the client as they hear what they said (and think) articulated back to them, but with a slight (hopefully helpful) change of wording. And lastly, MI coaches use summaries intermittently throughout the session to check and reflect on progress. 

Model of change

MI is commonly used within a model of change. Below are the stages of change listed, as well as their most useful interventions.

1. Pre-contemplation
   • Create relationship through empathy and rapport.
   • Use reflective listening
   • If the client is reluctant to change, encourage gathering of evidence or feedback.
   • If the client lacks believe that he or she can change, offer belief, encourage and hope.
   • If the client is giving reasons for not changing, explore wider values, beliefs and impact of behaviours of others.
2. Contemplation
   • Explore the reasons not to change and reasons to change.
   • Explore the 'problem'.
   • Explore the most important aspects or goals of the client's life.
   • Reflect on discrepancy between goals / values and current behaviour.
   • Explore confidence to change.
   • Explore barriers to change.
   • Reflect on desire to change and confidence statements.
3. Planning
   • Check for congruence in change communications.
   • Explore confidence to change.
   • Clarify and refine goals.
   • Review options and select chosen options.
   • Identify allies to support client.
   • Use visualization to build confidence.
4. Action
   • Monitor and affirm small steps.
   • Explore next steps.
   • Explore barriers being encountered.
   • Plan actions to overcome barriers.
5. Maintenance
   • Provide positive feedback on success
   • Plan for coping if the client slips back.
   • Reinforce long-term goals that fit with the client's values.
   • Encourage use of allies to continue positive progress.
6. Managing relapse
   • Empathize and normalize.
   • Explore reasons for relapse.
   • Plan to prevent next time.
   • Explore successes and affirm.
   • Reflect back positive statements of desire for change.
   • Return to contemplation actions.

Common techniques

Ten common MI techniques are:

1. Setting the scene.
2. Agenda mapping, that is agreeing the agenda.
3. Typical day.
4. Decisional balance.
5. Importance and confident rulers.
6. Looking back, looking forwards.
7. Two possible futures.
8. The key question.
9. Exploring options.
10. Agreeing a plan. 

Agenda mapping offers an opportunity to help the client to establish for themselves the focus of the conversation and therefore explain to themselves and the coach what they want to achieve from the coaching sessions. Possible questions the coach may ask are: 'What change shall we talk about?' and 'Why are we talking about ... and not about ...?' During agenda mapping it is important not to dive into too much detail. Rather, the aim is to remain at a high level and to move across a number of different issues before settling on the most important ones to the client. 

With the typical day technique, the coach aims to encourage the client to talk in detail about their current reality. But rather than talking specifically about the perceived problem, the coach asks a more open question to take a wider view of the issue within the context. The coach may ask: 'Perhaps you could help me get a better understanding of how our average day goes, starting from when you wake up in the morning until when you go to bed?' The overall aim is to encourage the client to start talking and continue from an evidence-based perspective about their day and how the issue that they wish to focus on manifests itself within their day. At the end of the exercise, it is helpful for the client if the coach summarizes the key points that have emerged. 

The decisional balance helps people think through their ambivalence in an open and systematic way. It works best when the client itself, rather than the coach, writes down the points on the decisional balance sheet, which is divided into 'good things' and 'less good things'. 

Evoking change talk lies at the heart of MI. With this technique the coach encourages the client to talk positively and actively about making the change. The coach is aware of the present state of change that the client is in (pre-contemplation or contemplation) and encourages the client to move to the next stage of making the change. 

When might MI be most suitable?

MI is very effective for many health-based assignments. It appears to be as effective, and in many cases more effective, than cognitive behavioural therapy for addictive behaviours including drugs, alcohol, smoking and weight loss coaching. More specifically, MI appears to be more likely to achieve the desired goal and for the clients to show continued adherence to their goals after the intervention, compared to other intervention techniques. However, the use of MI for other areas, such as career transition, managing redundancy or poor programmes, is more controversial and lacks evidence to support the claim that MI is more efficacious than CBT or other intervention techniques. In fact, for most areas of coaching, we are unable to make such claims as the evidence from comparative studies is not present. 

This last chapter describes the motivational interviewing approach. Motivational interviewing (MI) a directive, client-centered counselling style for eliciting behaviour change by helping clients to explore and resolve ambivalence. It was originally developed as an intervention to address drugs and alcohol addiction within the health care sector. Nowadays, it is used and found to be effective in various domains and under different conditions. MI is most centrally defined not by technique but by its spirit as a facilitative style for interpersonal relationship.