ExamTickets - How Children Develop from Siegler e.a. - 5th edition

Exam Tickets

• Genotype and phenotype can be separated because in genotype the word 'gene' is present. Phenotype begins with the 'ph' = physical: external characteristics.
• A tip to keep crystallized and fluid intelligence apart: a crystal needs a long time to form, so crystallized intelligence is the form of intelligence that gradually gets higher and higher during life, because more and more knowledge is being collected. On the other hand, fluid intelligence has a peak during the 20th year of life, which you can remember when you are around your 20th life year in your most optimal physical state, in which (among other things) your sporting performances will be at its peak. In addition, fluid intelligence requires a certain degree of flexibility because it is about understanding relationships between concepts that are new. Flexibility also decreases with aging.
• Chapter 16 is one of the most important chapters from the entire book. Here the core principles from the book are treated once again; in addition, connections are made between all the different subjects. This chapter is therefore important to understand and know well.

• Three reasons why the development of children is studied: (1) to help parents learn how to deal with negative emotions of their children, (2) to develop a responsible policy and (3) to better understand the nature of people.
• A tip for separating and visualizing reliability and validity. Imagine yourself a dartboard, you want to get your darts in the bullseye. Imagine, you have ten arrows ('measurements') and you throw them all in the bull's eye: in the statistics your research would now be both valid (because you have thrown them all into the bullseye) and are reliable (all measurements sit at the same point). However, suppose that the measurements are all at the top left of the dartboard, your measurement is reliable (repetition provides the same result), but not valid (not in the rose).
• The development process of the fertilized egg consists of four processes, to be remembered with the letters M-Cm-Cd-A: M itose: cell division, this takes place from 12 hours after fertilization; Celmigration: the displacement of newly formed cells away from their original location; Celdifferentiation: all embryonic stem cells can develop in any type of cell, these cells will now specialize in structure and function; Apoptose: cell killing, here, for example, the membranes between fingers and toes are removed.
• REM and non-REM sleep can be distinguished by remembering that the letters REM represent Rapid Eye Movement, REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements and is thus an active sleep phase, while the non-REM sleep is not.
• Piagets theory consists of the following stages, which are to remember with S - PO - CO - FO: the phase sensorimotoric, preoperational phase, the concrete operational phase, and the formal operational phase.
• To summarize how the different theories, describe learning of the child: Piaget's theory sees a child as a researcher. Knowledge theories see children as active pupils, an adapted product of evolution. Vygotsky's theory (socio-cultural theories) describe a child as a social learner. By Klahr (information processing theories) the child is seen as a problem solver. Dynamic system theories state that children are internally motivated to learn about the world around them.
• The eight forms of learning can be remembered with the first letters of which you can make the following 'word': HAPRIOSC / SHACIROP / CAPRIOSH: Habituation, Active learning, Perception learning, Rational learning, Instrumental conditioning   or  operant conditioning,   Observational learning / imitation, Statistic learning and Classical conditioning.
• Here is a summary of the steps in the process of how children learn a language: (1) The first step in learning language is the perception of speech. (2) As a second step, a child begins with the preparation of language production (babbling). (3) As a third step, the first words come. (4) Fourth, words are put together into whole sentences (telegram style). (5) Finally, the conversation capacities are developed.
• The five counting principles can be remembered through the letters: CAOSO:(1) Cardinality: the total number must correspond to the last number. (2) Abstraction: every set of discrete objects can be counted. (3) One-one correspondence: each object must be labeled with one number. (4) Stable order: the numbers must always be listed in the same order. (5) Order irrelevance: objects can be counted from left to right, from right to the left and in any other order.
• The development of Freud stages can be remembered with OrAPhLaG: Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latent stage, genital stage.
• The discrete emotion theory and functionalist approach can be separated by making mnemonics. Discreet means in mathematics that elements are separate from each other. This is also how discrete emotion theory sees emotions: emotions that can be clearly distinguished from birth. In fact, the functionalist approach states that emotions cannot always be distinguished from each other and see emotions as a function of the environment, they are dependent on the environment.
• A summary of how the self-esteem of a child is influenced: genetic predispositions, the quality of the parent-child relationship and relationships with peers, physical attractiveness, academic competence and all sorts of other social factors.
• The four different parenting styles are based on the degree of support and control. Here the four styles are summarized on the basis of whether there is a lot of (+) or little (-) support and control:
  
  • An authoritative parenting style: support +, control +
  • An authoritarian parenting style: support -, control +
  • A tolerant parenting style: support +, control -
  • An uninvolved parenting style: support -, control -
• The ways in which electronic communication facilitates the formation and preservation of friendships can be remembered with the following keywords:
  
  • Anonymity: More anonymity, especially for shy children, can help interact with others online.
  • Emphasis: Less emphasis on physical appearance ensures that children connect more based on shared interests and personality rather than on appearance.
  • Control: More control over interactions gives the feeling of being in charge of social life.
  • Matches: Finding equal peers is easier via the internet.
  • Availability: 24/7 access ensures that children can connect with their friends throughout the day.
  • Entertainment: It's nice to connect by sharing photos and videos online for example.
• A tool for learning the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg is the fact that they are stage theories, which are therefore related to a certain age and are discontinuous (see both chapter 1 and 14).
• It is good to realize that in explanations of differences between boys and girls, four of the same factors keep coming back: cognitive and motivational influences, influence of parenting, influence of peers, cultural influences.