Article Summary of Immigrant Religion in the US and Western Europe: Bridge of Barrier to Inclusion? - Foner & Alba - 2008

There are contrasting views on immigrant religion in Western Europe and the United States. In Western Europe, immigrant religion is often seen as problematic, while in the United States, it is viewed as a facilitator of the adaptation process. The main difference lies in the extent to which religion can serve as a bridge for immigrants and their descendants to be included in the new society. Three key factors are identified as critical in understanding this contrast: the religious backgrounds of immigrants in Western Europe and the United States, the level of religiosity among the native population, and the historical relationships and arrangements between the state and religious groups.

In recent years, there has been a growing body of social science literature examining the experiences and impact of immigrants in both the United States and Western Europe. However, the study of religion among immigrants has received less attention in the United States compared to other topics in the field of immigration. This is partly due to limitations in government surveys, which do not include questions about religion. Additionally, religion is not considered a problematic area for immigrants in the United States, and studies that do focus on religion highlight its positive role in facilitating the adaptation process.

In contrast, the study of immigrant religion is a prominent topic in Western Europe, particularly concerning the Islamic presence. There is a significant amount of literature on Islam and Muslims in Western Europe, often emphasizing the challenges and conflicts associated with immigrant religions and the difficulties of integrating Islam. Unlike in the United States, religion in Europe is seen as a marker of a fundamental social divide.

This article explores the reasons behind these divergent views on immigrant religion in the two regions and how they correspond to social realities. The authors argue that the difference is rooted in whether religion, as a belief system, institution, and community, can serve as a bridge for immigrants and the second generation to be included in the new society. There are three critical factors that contribute to this distinction: the religious backgrounds of immigrants (Christian in the United States and predominantly Muslim in Western Europe), the higher level of secularism in Western European populations compared to the religious involvement in the United States, and the historical relations and arrangements between the state and religious groups, which have led to greater challenges in accepting and incorporating new religions in Europe.

The article examines the contrasting perspectives on immigrant religion in social science studies and discusses the underlying reasons for these differences. While the United States generally presents a more favorable environment for immigrant religion, the conclusion acknowledges potential threats to this positive outlook in the United States and government efforts to accommodate Islam in Western Europe. The focus of the article is primarily on four major Western European countries with distinct approaches to religion: France, Germany, Britain, and the Netherlands.

What is the positive immigrant religion in the US?

The social science literature on immigrant religion in the United States emphasizes the positive role of religion in the lives of newcomers. Religion is seen as promoting the incorporation of immigrants into American society and helping them cope with the challenges of adjusting to a new country. Immigrants find refuge, respectability, and resources within religious communities. Religious organizations provide a sense of belonging, support networks, and psychological comfort. They also offer practical assistance such as job referrals, housing information, and educational programs. Immigrant religious congregations often reinforce ethnic identity and cultural heritage, allowing immigrants to maintain a connection to their home country while navigating their new surroundings. Religion can also facilitate upward mobility and the development of civic skills among the second generation. Immigrant religious groups often engage in civic and community activities, fostering a sense of belonging and promoting civic engagement. Ultimately, religion helps immigrants become accepted in American society and provides a sense of membership and belonging. While some immigrants convert to Christianity, many retain their non-Christian religious affiliations, contributing to the growing religious diversity in the United States. Immigrant religions, including Buddhism and Sikhism, have similar integrative effects as Christian denominations. Immigrant religious institutions and practices also undergo Americanization, adapting to local contexts and adopting American forms and practices. Overall, religion plays a significant and positive role in the lives of immigrants, aiding their adaptation and integration into American society.

Why are immigrants and religion a social problem in western Europe?

In Western Europe, religion is often seen as a problem rather than a solution for immigrant minorities. Scholarly discussions on immigrant religion mainly focus on Islam and view it as a barrier to integration and a source of conflict with mainstream institutions. The prevailing image of Islam in European society is one of fanaticism, fundamentalism, and female suppression. The negative perception of Islam has influenced academic research, which often highlights issues such as gender relations, freedom of speech, and the compatibility of Islam with modernity.

Some social scientists argue that Islam hinders the integration of immigrant minorities and threatens the liberal values of European states. They criticize practices like the subordination of women associated with Muslim immigrants. Others highlight discrimination faced by Muslims in areas such as employment, education, and public visibility of their religious practices. Policies like bans on wearing the Islamic headscarf and restrictions on mosque construction are cited as examples of institutionalized discrimination.

Conflicts between immigrant religions, particularly Islam, and mainstream institutions are prevalent in Western Europe. Debates arise over issues such as Muslim dress, burial practices, ritual slaughter, coeducation, arranged marriages, and the construction of mosques. Resistance to mosques is often justified on grounds such as noise and traffic nuisance, zoning rules, urban planning, and security concerns. Tensions also arise regarding state-funded Muslim schools, teaching Islam in state curricula, and the training of imams. There is a concern about balancing religious tolerance with the right to criticize Islam.

The social science literature also addresses the socio-economic disadvantages faced by Muslims, especially the second generation. Studies show higher unemployment rates and job positions below their educational training among the children of Muslim immigrants. Discrimination in the labor market is reported, and many Muslims perceive widespread discrimination in their daily lives.

Overall, the scholarly discourse on immigrant religion in Western Europe encompasses themes of integration challenges, discrimination, and conflicts with mainstream institutions. These discussions reflect the broader public and political debates surrounding the acceptance of Muslim practices and beliefs in European societies.

How can these different views on immigrants be explained?

The social science literature on religion among immigrants in Europe and the United States presents different perspectives and focuses. The variations in these studies can be attributed to the actual social dynamics and contexts in each region.

In Europe, studies on immigrant religion often highlight problems and conflicts. This is because European societies, particularly in Western Europe, are mainly secular, and religion is viewed with suspicion. Majority populations in Europe are skeptical of claims based on religion and its requirements. Additionally, societal institutions and national identities in Europe are rooted in Christianity, making it challenging for non-Christian religions, such as Islam, to find equal acceptance and integration.

On the other hand, studies on immigrant religion in the United States tend to present a more positive view. This is because the majority of immigrants in the US, like most of the native-born population, identify as Christians. Americans, in general, are more religious compared to Western Europeans. The religious orientation shared between immigrants and the majority population in the US contributes to greater acceptance and integration of non-Christian religions. The constitutional principles and state institutions in the US provide a foundation for accommodating religious diversity.

In Western Europe, Islam is the largest religious minority due to postwar immigration. Muslim immigrants, particularly those from Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, and other countries, face challenges of poverty, unemployment, and education rates. The association of Islam with these immigrant groups adds to the perception of them being problematic minorities.

In contrast, the situation in the United States is different. Mexican immigrants, who constitute a significant portion of the foreign-born population, are predominantly Christian, primarily Catholic. The proportion of Muslim immigrants in the US is relatively small, around 5 percent. Muslim Latinos make up less than 1 percent, and only 8 percent of adult Asian Americans are Muslim.

Muslims in the United States, overall, have achieved a comparatively higher socioeconomic status. They have higher educational attainment, with a significant number graduating from college. Mosque-goers in the US tend to fare even better, with above-average household incomes.

The differing attitudes towards religion in Europe and the United States contribute to the contrasting experiences of immigrant religions. Religion is more accepted and mainstream in the United States, aligning with American norms. In Europe, however, religion, especially Islam, faces skepticism and is often seen as illegitimate. The higher degree of secularization in Europe, particularly in Western European countries, diminishes the legitimacy of religious principles in social and cultural activities.

The conclusion is that the United States is more accepting of immigrant religion than Western Europe due to religious similarity, institutional structures, and the religiosity of the native population. The social science literature emphasizes the integrative role of religion in the US, while Europe faces challenges with incorporating Muslim immigrants. There are complexities, such as inequalities and potential erosion of church-state separation in the US, as well as accommodations for Islam in some European countries. Overall, it can be expected that Islam continues being problematic in Europe while immigrant religions in the US facilitate integration.