Aantekeningen hoorcollege 8 - Development, Learning & Behavior - Universiteit Utrecht (2022/2023)

H C   8   -   J U N I   2 0 2 3

Learning

Explicit learning = we are aware of the fact that we’re learning

Implicit learning = we aren’t aware that we’re learning

Habituation

= a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus (it can be any kind of stimulus)

• Habituation has an adaptive function because if we would focus on/respond strongly to all stimuli, we would be completely overstimulated. We have to focus on the things that are relevant
• For babies is habituation a way to check what’s new for them or not » an infant can discriminate between what he already knows/what’s familiar and what’s new
• Signals can do the opposite of habituation (e.g. pain stimuli or smoke alarm)

What is learning?

= a change in behavior that results from past experience

• Basic learning processes:
  • Non-associative learning: habituation and sensitization (you encountered the stimulus before, so you respond more or less to it)
  • Associative learning: classical conditioning and operant/instrumental conditioning
• Classical conditioning:
  
  • Starting with unconditioned stimulus » a ‘thing’ that already exists, before any learning takes place
  • Introducing new stimulus » neutral stimulus » will not elicit a response
  • If the unconditioned and neutral stimulus will be offered together several times, the neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus because the person/animal will respond to the stimulus separately from the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. bowl of dog food (unconditioned) and whistle (neutral stimulus) » together » whistle will become conditioned stimulus)

Acquisition and extinction

• Acquisition: the amount of time that is needed for the neutral stimulus to become a conditioned stimulus
• Extinction: if the conditioned stimulus will be presented several times without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will extinct (but spontaneously recovery can occur, thus a spontaneous conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus)
• What influences the speed of acquisition:
  
  • Intensity
  • Forward pairing of the unconditioned stimulus with the neutral stimulus (forward short-delay paring works the best, thus conditioned stimulus appears first, then the unconditioned stimulus)
  • Repetition is usually necessary, but one-trial learning is possible
• Does it only work with the same stimulus?
  
  • Stimulus generalization: the stimulus similar to the initial conditioned stimulus can also elicit a conditioned response
  • Stimulus discrimination: the stimulus similar to the initial conditioned stimulus doesn’t elicit the same conditioned response

• Classical conditioning explains certain psychological problems like phobia: type of anxiety disorder, defined by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or stimulation
• Classical conditioning can be helpful by
  
  • Exposure therapy
  • Aversion therapy
  • Changing attitudes
• Limitations of classical conditioning: It relies on an existing response (e.g. we already have a positive attitude towards an object or person)

Instrumental conditioning

• Law of effect: a response followed by a satisfying consequence will be more likely to occur
• Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it (Skinner)
• Use of reinforcement: a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it » reinforcer: stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response (e.g. giving a candy after good behavior)
  
  • Positive reinforcement: occurs when response is strengthened by subsequent presentation of stimulus » it increases the frequency of the response
  • Negative reinforcement: occurs when a response is strengthened by removal of aversive stimulus » stimulus that provides a prevents a negative outcome (e.g. putting on sunscreen to avoid sunburn)
• Punishment: response is weakened by an outcome that follows
  
  • Positive punishment: occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus (e.g. a fine with speeding)
  • Negative punishment/response cost: occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus (e.g. taking tablet away)

Observational learning

= the process of learning by observing behaviors of others

• Behavior is observed, memorized and imitated
• The most important role models for children are their parents
• How it works:
  
  • Via instrumental conditioning » behavior that is reinforced will more likely be learned
  • Cognitive abilities are necessary
    
    • Attention » you must be able to observe the behavior
    • Retention » you must be able to remember the behavior
    • Reproduction » you must be able to physically perform the behavior
    • Motivation » you must be willing to intimate the behavior