The problem phase: how do you go from a problem to a problem definition? - Chapter 2

Social problems are everywhere. Regardless of what the problem concerns, social psychological factors play a role in all these issues. Our society as well as many societies around the world are facing a diversity of problems today and there are vast differences in the way these problems are stated (in the media for example). Some headlines in newspapers are based merely on an observation (e.g., the election isn’t a done deal), and it is not always clear what the problem is. Others are based on a piece of systematic research and while it is immediately clear what the problem is, it doesn’t state anything about the causes of the problem (e.g., the poorest die most often from emergency surgery).

A problem definition is an important first step towards solving or relieving a problem. A problem definition is a clear and precise description of what the problem is, and why and for whom it is believed to be a problem. The target group must also be defined for the intervention. Additionally, the problem definition must provide insight into possible causes and important aspects of the problem. For example, whether the problem is an applied, concrete, and social psychological problem, and whether the problem can be solved.

Many studies in social psychological pay little attention to formulating the problem. One reason for this is a lot of research has been done on basic social psychology. For example, within empathy-altruism research, the circumstances under which people are inclined to help others are examined. No further attention is paid here to the application of the findings. Additionally, studies where there is an applied focus often lack a systematic problem analysis.

How do you reformulate the problem?

The newspapers contain headlines often indicating a problem. The disadvantage is, however, that these headlines often are not well formulated. Without a systematic problem analysis, it isn’t always clear what the problem is. Global propositions must be made more concrete to be investigated further. It is also possible that a more detailed problem analysis can discover the real problem instead of the problem that has been formulated. When the problem is clearly articulated, there are many possible solutions. In some cases, this may indicate that a social psychological intervention is not appropriate. But if there is a clear social psychological dimension to the problem, then it is a challenge for the practitioner to find an appropriate theory or paradigm from a toolbox of different theories to investigate this further.

The path from a problem to a problem definition

The above information shows that there is not one way from the problem to a problem definition along a short, straight path. It is important to note that applied social researchers have their own preferences for subjects and theories and therefore approach the problem in their own way. This can cause one research to focus on a completely different aspect of the subject than another researcher. It is good to be aware that such tendencies can give a problem analysis a certain colour.

If a psychologist is approached by a client with a particular problem, then it is up to the psychologist to determine the problem definition. During a conversation with a client it’s important that there is good questioning to discover the real problem. It’s also important to consider how many aspects a problem consists of. It’s possible that there are several problems. To do this, look for the biggest problem and link smaller problems to it. The most relevant questions are:

• What is the problem?
• Why is it a problem?
• Who is it a problem for?
• What are the possible causes of the problem?
• What is the target group (for the intervention)?
• What are the most important (key) aspects of the problem? For example:
  • Is it an applied problem?
  • Is it a concrete problem?
  • Is it a social psychological problem?
  • Can the problem be solved or alleviated?

A good preliminary problem definition is one that incorporates all the above questions, it delineates what needs to be explained and gives suggestions for finding the correct literature. Based on a good problem definition, it is easier to proceed to the next level, develop, and test an explanatory model. Additionally, it is almost impossible to develop good interventions without a good problem definition, because the essence of the problem is probably missing.

What are key questions for a problem definition?

What’s the problem?

Here the main issue is determining the central problem to be solved. To answer this question, insight is needed into the cause and background of the problem. With many problem definitions, it is not always clear what the essence. In a conversation with a client, the psychologist should always be critical of what the client is saying, and he or she should be open to possible other causes of a particular problem. Additionally, problems may often be stated to generally, then it’s not possible to deal with the problem effectively.

Why is it a problem?

How does the problem manifest itself? What are its consequences? What makes it problematic? When did it first occur? Answering the why question helps specify the problem as well as provide guidance for a possible intervention problem. It’s also important to ask when exactly the problem arose. This allows for a historical analysis o be made that can explain various things about the problem. It can reveal that the suggest problem isn’t actually the problem. Such an analysis can point to a specific time when the problem occurred. Lastly, it can give reasons why the problem suddenly got worse.

Who is it a problem for?

It is important to know if only the client is involved in the problem, or if more parties are involved. Usually, other parties are involved. Then it is important to investigate if the client’s problem definition matches that of the other parties. When these are contradictory, it is difficult for a psychologist to accept the assignment. He or she must then try to formulate a problem definition that everyone can agree with.

What are the possible causes of the problem?

Here, the psychologist can draw a picture of the background and the possible causes of the problem. Additionally, it can be determined whether the problem has a social psychological dimension. If so, this can be used to create a preliminary causal model. Remember, the purpose of creating a problem definition is not to define the exact causes. It is important to get an impression of the causal model and the possible social psychological processes involved. It is also important to distinguish between direct (immediate) causes and more indirect (distal) causes. This way, a model of the causal process can be made. Making a preliminary causal model can be facilitated by asking these questions:

• What is causing the problem?
• How do these causes affect the problem?

What is the target audience?

Who should be convinced of the problem? Whose cooperation is needed to solve the problem? Selecting a target group reduces the number of people involved in the problem. It explains the problem and makes it more specific. This makes it easier to come up with strategies for the solution. If the psychologist finds out later in the process that the target group is too difficult or expensive, they can always redefine the problem. Remember that the PATH method is flexible.

What are the main aspects of the problem?

To understand the main aspects of the problem, the following questions should be asked:

• Is it an applied problem? Finding an effective solution to a problem is not the main goal of basic research in psychology, but it is the priority of applied psychological research. Therefore, it’s important that the question “why is it a problem” also includes a question about how a particular problem can be solved.
• Is it a concrete problem? It’s also important that a problem is formulated in concrete enough terms. All key aspects must be well operationalized to be useful. When behaviour is operationalized, it is easier to recognize and tackle. It’s also good to specify the characteristics of the target group. This makes it easier to evaluate whether an intervention was successful or not. Finally, someone must indicate a specific behaviour that needs to be changed. It’s necessary to know what the normative behaviour of a particular target group is.
• Is it a social psychological problem? This question is partly answered by the above questions. two more questions to consider are:
  • Are there causes other than social psychological causes, if so, are they more important than the social psychological factors.
  • What does a social psychological perspective contribute to the problem?
• Is the problem solvable? The social psychologist must determine whether a particular problem can be solved or not. This depends on the nature of the problem, the efficiency of the problem, but also depends on the client.

How does the research for a problem definition proceed?

The main goal of research at this stage is to better understand the problem and its possible causes, as well as estimate the success of an intervention. In this phase we are not yet concerned with an empirical test of the causal model or an evaluation of the intervention program.

Often, exploratory research is desirable for the problem definition because it offers the certainty that the social psychologist won’t make mistakes in identifying the causes and/or solutions of the problem. There are several ways to gather information about a problem.

• Background material/desk research: major social issues appear in the newspaper and television, and it may be worth consulting these forms of media. Additionally, it’s advisable to consult the internet. It’s good to remember that information from the client alone isn’t enough as it may be incomplete. Various sources must be consulted to gain insight into a problem.
• Scientific literature: it’s good to do a ‘review’ of scientific literature available on a topic. In the problem phase, the main goal is to generate as many ideas as possible about the possible antecedents of the problem, which facilitate the creation of a causal model.
• Interviews: it is always good to arrange interviews with the people experiencing the problem. This gives a better picture of how people experience the problem. This helps define a problem definition that everyone can agree with. These interviews should contain a few elements so that they’re actually useful:
  • Should be relatively unstructured so that they can interact freely. Include a few basic questions so that the person in question isn’t sent any particular direction. This makes for the most objective form of interview.
  • Another feature of interviews is the investigation of differences in perspective on the problem between the parties involved.
• Observation: the disadvantage of interviews is that outcomes can greatly differ between people. This may be because some people aren’t being truthful. In that case, observation can be used. There are several methods of observation:
  • A more unstructured observation: small checklist with points to consider for a particular setting.
  • Sometimes it’s better if people aren’t aware of the presence of the psychologist. Hawthorne effect: people behave better when they know they’re being observed.

How do we complete the problem definition?

A problem definition usually consists of one paragraph that describes the main elements of the problem in a fluid and coherent manner. All questions are fully answered, but not as a list. It must be clear what the problem is, why it arose, for whom it is a problem, what the main causes are, the target group, and relevant problem aspects.