How to use power in an organization? - Chapter 7

Four guidelines have been proposed for leaders to use power effectively in an organization. First, recognize that every organization has varying interests. The leader needs to first diagnose the political landscape. Second, figure out what point of view various individuals and units have on issues of concern. Third, understand that to get things done, you need power, so you need to understand where power comes from and how the sources of power can be developed. Fourth, understand the strategies and influence tactics through which power is developed and used in organizations.

What are the characteristics of power?

Power is the potential of one person or one group to influence another person or group. Having power does not mean one has to actually exercise it. For instance, it is an officer's potential power to write you a ticket and not the actual behavior of writing a ticket that slows you down. Influence, on the other hand, is the exercise of power to change the behavior, attitudes and values of an individual or group. In other words, influence is the power in use.

There are five bases of power in organizations. The first three are position power, they come from a person's position in the hierarchy. The last two are personal power, they come from the personal characteristics of the person and may have no relation with one's position in the organization.

1. Coercive power: the ability to push. It may include threats. Most leaders claim to have this power, although they rarely use it.
2. Reward power: the ability to provide incentives of other things that are valued, for instance pay raises, bonuses and promotions.
3. Legitimate power: the ability to make a request and get a response due to the nature of the roles between two people. Legitimate power is based upon the structural level in the organization and/or a feeling of obligation. 
4. Expert power: the ability to influence others due to knowledge or a special skill set or expertise.
5. Referent power: the ability to influence based upon other people's identification with the individual and the desire of the follower to emulate them. Referent power is based upon liking, respect and admiration. 

Three possible reactions of followers may result from these power bases.

1. Commitment (internalization): a strong effort made and enthusiastically carries out the request. Both attitudes and behavior change.
2. Compliance: willingness to complete the request, but in an apathetic manner, putting in minimal effort. Only behavior changes.
3. Resistance: refusal to do it. No change in behavior and attitude toward the request.

Common pathways are as follows: follower engagement level --> power base used (follower response) --> follower reaction to directives:

• Commitment --> Referent ("I admire you") --> High motivation and performance
  Commitment --> Expert ("I need your help") --> Zone of indifference

• Compliance --> Legitimate ("It is my job") --> Zone of indifference
  Compliance --> Reward ("I am in it for the money") --> Zone of indifference

• Resistance --> Coercive ("I resent being treated this way") --> Low performance and sabotage

What are the organizational sources of power?

Power is based upon how much people depend upon other necessary resources. There are three lines of power for leaders in organizations to use in order to gain productive power. First, lines of supply: leaders bring in the things that their group needs, such as money, materials and other resources such as rewards and prestige. Second, lines of information: leaders need to know what is happening in the organization that may affect the goals of the group. Also, it is important to know who to share information with (and who not to share it with). Third, lines of support: a leader needs to be able to innovate in order to have an impact on the organization. The leader needs to have support that allows for risk taking behavior beyond the typical organizational routines. 

What are influence strategies?

The most effective influence strategies are: 

1. Rational persuasion: using logical arguments and factual evidence to show a proposal or request is feasible and relevant for attaining important task objectives.
2. Apprising: explaining how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will benefit the target personality or help advance the target person's career.
3. Inspirational appeals: making an appeal to values and ideals or seeking to arouse the target person's emotions to gain commitment for a request or proposal.
4. Consultation: encouraging the target person to suggest improvements in a proposal or to help plan an activity or change for which the person's support and assistance is desired.
5. Collaboration: offering to provide relevant resources and assistance if the target person will carry out a request or approves a proposed change.
6. Ingratiation: using praise and flattery before or during an influence attempt to express confidence in the ability of the target person to carry out a difficult request.
7. Personal appeals: asking the target person to carry out a request or support a proposal out of friendship or asking for a personal favor, saying what it is. 
8. Exchange: offering an incentive, suggesting an exchange of favors or indicating willingness to reciprocate at a later time if the target person will do what is requested.
9. Coalition tactics: seeking the aid of others to persuade the target person to do something or using the support of others as a reason for the target person to agree.
10. Legitimate tactics: seeking to establish the legitimacy of a request or to verify authority to make it by referring to rules, policies, contracts, or precedent.
11. Pressure: using demands, threats, frequent checking, or persistent reminders to influence the target person to carry out a request.

Only the last tactic, pressure, was negatively related to both task and relationship effectiveness. This relationship was neutral for rational persuasion and positive for all other tactics. Especially rational persuasion is very effective. 

One can also influence another without authority. Remember that power is based upon the general dependence postulate: the greater someone depends upon another person, the more power they have over them. Hence, to influence someone over whom you have no formal authority, you need to assess whether and how much he or she depends upon you. Here, a model of influence without authority can be used. This model is based upon the law of reciprocity (paying back). The model without authority goes as follows: assume all potential allies --> clarify your goals and priorities --> diagnose the world of the other person --> identify relevant currencies (theirs, yours) --> dealing with relationships --> influence through give and take. 

What is impression management?

Impression management is a set of behaviors that people use to protect their self-image or change the way they are seen by others (or both). There are three reasons why people are motivated to manage their impression: the relevance of the goal of the impressions, the value of these goals, and the difference between their desired and current image. There are two different goals for using impression management. First, minimizing the bad: to use them defensively to avoid blame for poor performance or ask for forgiveness. Strategies for this goal are: apologies, excuses, justifications. Second, maximizing the good: to generate respect and liking from other people. Strategies for this goal are: exemplification, ingratiation, and self-promotion. One can also manage impressions with body language.

How are politics and power related to one another?

Organizational politics refer to unsanctioned influence attempts that seek to promote self-interest at the expense of organizational goals. Perceptions of organizational politics (POP) refers to an individual's subjective appraisal of the extent to which the work environment is characterized as self-serving of various individuals and groups, to the detriment or at the cost of other individuals or groups.

Political skills are defined as follows: the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives. Political skills consist of four sets of behaviors.

1. Networking ability: the ability to create a diverse constellation of contacts both within and outside the organization.
2. Social astuteness: being able to accurately interpret the behavior of others through attentive observation.
3. Interpersonal influence: having the ability to adapt influence strategies to different situations.
4. Apparent sincerity: appearing to others as genuine and honest. 

Individuals need to have both the will and the skill for political acumen.