How is consumer compliance achieved without changing attitudes? - Chapter 7

Because many advertising messages are not aimed at informing or persuading but at seeking the response of compliance with a sales request, a typical playing field for the forces of social influence is direct response advertising (e.g. mail-order catalogues, tel-sales programmes, and sales promotion actions). Also, in-store promotions and point-of-purchase demonstrations can induce a direct consumer response, namely buying the product. Direct response advertising includes all the messages aimed at getting the consumer to directly response by making a purchase/accepting an offer.

Various social influences are employed in such situations. Compliance refers to the overt behavioral acquiescence response when a specific door salesman addresses a consumer in a face-to-face context. It can also be more indirect (e.g. an ad or catalogue that asks for quick response because the offer doesn’t last long). Cialdini et al. have identified six principles of social influence:

• Reciprocity;

• Commitment and consistency;

• Social validation;

• Liking;

• Authority;

• Scarcity;

• Confusion.

What does social influence and compliance entail?

With conventional advertising, consumers are exposed some time before they find themselves in a situation where they can actually buy the product. The tactics used to foster compliance are frequently temporally and spatially close to that situation. The principles of social influence typically function to foster purchase (facilitation), but do not affect any of the other advertising objectives like improving brand awareness. They affect singular behavior and are less effective in influencing longer-term behavior like repeat buying.

Automaticity is the key of compliance techniques; the response must be mindless. Cialdini used the metaphor of a click-whir response, which refers to a fixed action pattern that unfolds more of less invariantly when suitable environmental stimuli are present in the influence context.

‘Click’ is the stimulus that prompts the behavioral response, and ‘whir’ is the actual unfolding of that response. Like automatic responses, click-whir responses are fast, effortless, spontaneous, stable across situations, partly inherited, and frequently triggered by emotions. They are also performed routinely and outside conscious awareness. Their effectiveness relies on the ‘mindlessness’ of the consumer.

A consequence of this mindlessness is that people re-enact scripts – predetermined, stereotyped sequences of action that define a well-known situation – without paying attention to substantive information. These scripts are used by consumers so they don’t have to think how to behave in certain situations. People need action rules that specify the actions that need to be initiated when cues in the environment signal that a certain script is appropriate.

The least effort principle suggests that people only behave in a mindless manner if there is no sufficient reason to invest into mindful behavior. Besides scripts, people also use cognitive heuristics to simplify complex decisions.

Chen and Chaiken state that the notion of least effort translates itself in the sufficiency principle, which refers to the tendency to strike a balance between minimizing cognitive effort and satisfying motivational concerns. Script following and using heuristics are not completely unconscious processes, because they require conscious processing and awareness at some stage (conscious direction of the script to further cues and choosing certain heuristics consciously to base the behavior on).

What is reciprocity?

The principle of reciprocity refers to the motivation to return a favor: we should do to others what they do to us, both positively and negatively.

The door-in-the-face technique

The door-in-the-face (DITF) technique involves a sequence of rejection-then-moderation. A large request is followed by a more moderate target request. The fact that the influence agent makes a concession by slimming down the request, evokes the need to make a concession and to comply. A variation to the DITF technique is the ‘reciprocity-by-proxy’ technique. Here not the target itself, but a third party on behalf of the target is offered a favor. or benefit. For example, when an organization donates to a charity on behalf of its employees and then asks these employees to comply with a request.

That’s-not-all technique

The reciprocity principle also underlies the effectiveness of the That’s-Not-All (TNA) technique, where an initial request is followed by a second request that is made more desirable. Consumers interpret the second request as a favor. and are more willing to comply. There are two forms, namely the reduced cost form and the added value form. In case of the reduced cost form the opening bargain is improved by a decrease in the price of the offer. The added value form uses a fixed price, and instead adds desirable attributes/incentives to the initial offer. The TNA technique mainly works when consumers are in a state of mindlessness.

Beyond reciprocity

In case of small requests, the costs of refusal often outweigh those of compliance. Therefore, it is often not necessary to use a scripted technique but all you have to do is ask. Consumers are also often willing to return a favor. (e.g. a cash request, coupon, etc.). An important function of sampling is inducing such favorable behavior. When consumers accept a free sample, they may feel in debt and thus purchase the product to return the favor. of receiving the sample.

What does commitment and consistency entail?

People have a strong tendency to show congruent and rather coherent responses that is in line with previous behavior. This is referred to as the commitment/consistency principle and comes from both external as well as internal forces. The tendency to engage in repeated acts of purchasing after an initial and unrelated act of buying, is referred to as the shopping momentum effect. Once a person has given in to the temptation to buy, he will continue to do so. This principle is most effective when commitment is actively, publicly, with effort and freely chosen.

Foot-in-the-door technique

The foot-in-the-door (FITD) technique is based on the idea that compliance with an initial, small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a second, larger request, because the initial act of compliance triggers the principle of consistency. To comply with the second request, people often have to do more than just accept the first one, e.g. signing a petition or placing a sign in their yard. It is thus not the act of initial agreement that results in compliance, but how much effort is required to accomplish the first request.

The self-perception theory states that people sometimes infer their attitudes from their over behavior instead of the other way around. More generally, it refers to the self as the origin of consistency needs. The consumer wishes to respond in such a way that his belief system remains consistent. Once he concludes he is ‘the kind of person that accepts these requests’ after the initial one, he is more likely to accept the second one as well.

Low-ball technique

Besides the need to be consistent in their self-concept, people also feel the need to be consistent in their behavior towards other people. When someone makes a request, commitment toward this person can often serve as a powerful force of social influence. An individual can also feel commitment toward the deal or offer that is the object of the influence setting. This latter type of commitment plays an important role in the low-ball technique, which is characterized by soliciting commitment from customers with a particularly seductive offer and then changing the deal for the worse. Commitment sets in when the initial offer is presented. For example, hooking a customer with a car with all kinds of extras, and then saying that there has been made a mistake and that the extras are excluded from the price offered. Because the customer is already hooked, he is likely to still buy the car, although he has to pay much more than he initially assumed.

The commitment principle is most effective when commitment is active, public, effort-full and freely chosen. However, these aren’t characteristic factors for advertising. Since the reception of advertising messages usually involves a passive, private and low-effort process, one could question whether the commitment principle is relevant for marketing and advertising. Direct response advertising and product trials are useful marketing tools that frequently prompt more active and effort-full responding. Not only do these tools a reciprocity response, but also cause a cognitive change: the recipient of a direct response ad or product trial tends to generate cognitions that are supportive of the new behavior. Because of our consistency need, we will generate arguments that support our idea that buying product X was the right thing to do. This same principle may be at work when consumers receive a free sample. In this case the act of actually using the product generates a set of newly formed associations and cognitions. These cognitions are a powerful predictor of future behavior. Product trials through sampling thus trigger both the principle of reciprocity and commitment. Sales promotion actions, such as prize contests, are an additional marketing tool that can have similar effects.

What is meant by social validation?

The social validation principle involves turning an eye to others to assess the merits of some object, issue or offer. It is used to suggest that others like what is presented, which convinces the target consumer that the offer can be trusted to be of value. This is very effective in ambiguous and uncertain situations and with experience (can only be found out during consumption) and credence attributes (difficult/impossible to ascertain, e.g. a professionals advice).

Reference groups

A reference group refers to a person or group of people that significantly influences an individual’s behavior. Communicates standards, norms, beliefs and values that are shared by others and thus can serve as a benchmark. A distinction has been made between primary groups and secondary groups. Primary groups (e.g. friends and family) are more influential than secondary groups (e.g. trade unions) because they are small and enable face-to-face interaction. Marketers also often distinguish between membership groups (the groups one currently belongs to), aspirational groups (groups whose lifestyles, values, or norms one would like to have), and negative reference groups groups to which the target consumers would not like to belong).

Individual differences and social proof

Image-conscious consumers are high self-monitors and are sensitive and responsive to normative social cues. Normative information is more effective on collectivists compared to individualists. Research findings also suggest that commitment/consistency is generally more influential for people who score high on individualism, whereas social proof is most influential for individuals who score high on collectivism.

Motivation and social validation

The ambivalence and uncertainty due to the attributes of the advertised product can be further moderated by psychological make-up of the consumer. Strong accuracy and impression motivations are likely to increase the impact of social proof on beliefs, attitudes, and behavior.

When a consumer has a strong need to hold accurate opinions and values, and has the desire to hold attitudes and display behavior that will satisfy salient social goals, social proof will have a large impact. Likewise, when a consumer wishes to hold attitudes and display behavior that will satisfy social goals, social proof will also have a great impact.

Values of lifestyles

The Values and Life-Style Typology (VALS) claims to identify various groups of consumers along two axes, based on the availability of resources like income and intelligence, and three types of orientation: principle, status and action orientation. Principle-oriented consumers tend to act on the basis of their own beliefs and values and are not very sensitive to group influence. Status-oriented people have a strong impression motivation and therefore act based on others’ beliefs and values. Action-oriented individuals are physically and socially active. Consumers can be classified into one of the following eight segments, based on their VALS-responses:

1. Actualizers: they have the most resources and achieved a balance between the three orientations;

2. Believers: they tend to be principle-oriented;

3. Fulfillers: they tend to be principle-oriented, having more resources at their disposal than believers;

4. Strivers: they aim to impress others;

5. Achievers: they aim to impress others, more successfully than strivers because they have more resources;

6. Experiencers: young, impulsive, sensation-seeking individuals with abundant resources;

7. Makers: action-oriented like experiencers, but with fewer resources, thereby forced to focus energy on attaining self-sufficiency;

8. Strugglers: they tend to be older, lack resources and are focused on survival.

What is meant by liking?

The liking principle states that we are more likely to comply with the requests of someone we like than someone we dislike/feel neutral towards.

Determinants of liking in social influence situations

Various factors influence liking in social influence situations. Familiarity is an important factor: as the target consumer is exposed more frequently to the influence, familiarity increases and a positive attitude (liking) develops. Perhaps the most powerful influence sources are friends and family, because the warm feelings a person has for them are transferred to the product. This is used, for example, when companies ask their current customers to bring in their friends.

Another important factor influencing liking is physical attractiveness. Attractive people are considered not only beautiful, but also honest, kind, intelligent, persuasive and sociable (attractiveness halo). Advertisers and marketers have been using the attractiveness halo for a long time and it has proven effective in selling products. Consumers tend to over-generalize and in this way the halo rubs off on a product that is associated with an attractive model.

A third factor is similarity: people tend to like people who are like them, because they often like themselves. The name-letter effect is an example of the similarity-liking relationship. This effect refers to the liking of and preference for products, streets, and career choice that share the same letters as your own name. In commercials, you often see quite ‘general’ people who are easy to associate with, in order to increase liking. Also simple gestures like a gentle touch or remembering the customer’s name can increase liking.

The fourth factor influencing liking is ingratiation. People tend to like those who flatter them, fuelled by their vanity. If you compliment a potential customer, it is more likely that he will comply with your request.

The fifth, and last factor is bringing good news. When you bring positive news to someone, they are more likely to like you. The reverse is true for negative news.

What is meant by authority?

Authority refers to the power to influence others into behaving in a certain way either through coercion or with the aid of status and position related symbols. It often comes with social dominance, conveyed through titles, clothing, or products like jewellery or expensive cars that impress others and communicate a high status. Brands can have status as well: the mere presence of brands with specific salient attributes is sufficient to affect nonverbal hierarchical behavior, without the brand playing a significant role in the interaction of the people involved. For example, a man driving a Mercedes is considered more competent than one driving a Daihatsu, although the kind of car he is driving may have nothing to do with his area of expertise. Furthermore, women tend to be more prone to respond to status cues in their interaction with men, than men in their interaction with women.

Authority and obedience

The most famous study regarding authority was done by Milgram. Participants had to act as a teacher who was obliged to give his student (an actor) an electronic shock when he answered a question wrongly. Every additional error made, meant a more intense shock. While motivated by the experimenter to go through, most teachers were willing to go to the point where the shock would have been lethal. Under the power/authority of the experimenter, most participants continued, while they had the option to walk out of the experiment. This indicates how strongly authority can affect a person’s behavior.

What is meant by scarcity?

Consumers value goods that are scarce (rare, difficult to obtain, in short supply). Luxury brands often use scarcity as part of their strategy. The scarcity principle is also often used for special, ‘limited’ offers that only last for a set period of time. Its heuristic function is that consumers think that high value objects are harder to obtain than less valuable ones. This influences their behavior under conditions of mindlessness.

Van Herpen, Pieters and Zeelenberg state that scarcity can be either supply driven – where a sense of exclusivity is produced by limited availability – or demand driven – where the popularity of a product results in limited availability. Worchel et al. showed that presenting individuals with few (instead of many) items exerted a powerful influence on desirability.

The scarcity principle is often used in the deadline technique in advertising when ‘now or never’ discounts, limited “exclusive” offers and special editions are promoted. This principle serves an important heuristic function. People tend to think that objects that are of higher value are often harder to obtain than less valuable objects. Because of this, scarcity constitutes an important mental shortcut to infer the value of something.

According to the commodity theory, limiting the product availability should enhance its desirability not because scarcity acts as a heuristic cue, but because increased scarcity instigates a tendency to form more extreme attitudes. This is the result of enhanced thinking about the merits of the product due to scarcity.

In line with dual process theories of persuasion, scarcity thus motivates more extensive systematic/central route processing. It functions as a heuristic cue, it increases the favorableness of attitudes regardless of the arguments’ quality. If it prompts more extensive processing, it will increase persuasion when arguments are strong and compelling, but decrease it when arguments are weak.

The reactivity theory is an alternative theory for the commodity theory. It states that if availability is reduced, we feel that we lose the freedom to choose. This prompts a strong motivation to restore freedom.

What is meant by confusion?

When consumers are slightly confused, they may be more prone to comply with sales requests. This technique is referred to as the disrupt-then-Reframe (DTR) technique, which is characterized by a small ‘twist’/odd element, in a typical scripted request. The ‘disruption’ is followed by a persuasive phrase that concludes the script, the ‘re-frame’ (e.g. “it’s an amazing deal”). This interferes with the consumer’s ability to actively self-regulate his behavior by distracting him. It works because it directly drains his battery of resources (energy) and because it disrupts/derails his trail of negative thoughts (counterarguments). That way it distracts him and hinders his self-regulation. The persuasive message is then used to base the evaluation on.

Example: “Now is your chance to try your luck for 350 cents (disruption/odd element) a week… that’s € 3,50. It’s a bargain (re-frame)!”
Another function the disruption seems to serve, is that is confusion the disruption causes may motivate the need for cognitive closure. The re-frame may provide this closure and in that way increase compliance needs.

What is meant by mindlessness?

The origins of mindlessness (why people fall back on heuristics) are multiple decision moments, or sequential requests. Sequential request techniques like the foot-in-the-door technique trigger the self-regulatory resource depletion; processes involving active self-regulation, require resources that are finite. The active self can thus become depleted (out of energy).

Fennis et al. developed at two-stage model and tested it whether it could account for the effectiveness of sequential request techniques. In the first stage, the initial request or series of requests is presented to the target. Complying with these requests results in self-regulatory resource depletion, thereby producing mindlessness. In the second stage, self-regulatory resource depletion fosters the use of heuristics that encourage yielding to the target request: the target is more likely to comply.