Serious games are designed to educate and entertain the user and promote behavioural change via the incorporation of prosocial messages embedded within gameplay. However, there is no consensus on the definition of serious games. It is possible that simulations could qualify as serious games, as some simulations consist of a challenge and have a clear learning goal.
Virtual worlds refer to three-dimensional environments in which social interaction figures more prominently than in the context of games or simulations. Young people may be highly susceptible to learning in digital environments (e.g. serious games) because they are ‘fluent’ and immersed in digital media.
The social cognitive theory (SCT) emphasizes observational learning. Self-efficacy is important for the theory. According to this theory, self-efficacy is enhanced through repeated gameplay and executions of behaviours needed to master a given game. This newly acquired self-efficacy is thought to transfer from the game to the real world.
The self-regulated learning theory states that individuals seek to manage their cognitions, behaviours and learning in pursuit of a given goal. Self-regulatory skills include goal setting (1), goal monitoring (2) and review of progress (3).
The self-determination theory (SDT) states that individuals have innate tendencies toward psychological growth. These tendencies can be facilitated or undermined by the social context via the satisfaction of the basic needs of autonomy (1), competence (2) and relatedness (3). Serious games designed according to the self-determination theory develop competence through task completion, allows for choice to develop autonomy and connect relevant goals to factors (e.g. personal values) that exist outside of the gaming environment.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) states that there are two routes through which attitudes are formed when encountering persuasive messages, the central and peripheral processing routes. The central route entails processing and analysing of the argument posed by the message in a relatively deep fashion, making the resulting attitude change stable and enduring. The ability to critically evaluate the argument and motivation influence the central route. The peripheral route entails the processing of relatively superficial aspects of the message (e.g. attractiveness, credibility). The resulting attitude change is temporary and unstable.
Serious games developed according to ELM use tailoring, the customization of messages to the characteristics or culture of the player to increase the personal relevance and importance of a given game message. Furthermore, the likelihood that this message will be processed centrally is enhanced.
There are several aspects of serious games:
- Immersion
This refers to the players’ sense of presence within the game. The perceived immersion is linked to enjoyment of the game. The presence can be defined according to spatial, social and self dimensions. Spatial presence refers to the sense of being physically embodied in the game environment. Social presence refers to the sense of interacting with virtual actors as if they were real. Self presence refers to the extent to which the virtual persona is experienced as the actual self. Presence is higher with a self-created avatar and when playing cooperatively. - Identity
This refers to the ability to enfranchise players into the game world environment. This identification could engage players. This can be facilitated by allowing avatar creating and avatar editing. - Interactivity
This refers to the players’ ability to initiate and receive feedback for actions during the game, whereby such actions influence the course of events that occur during the game. This feature can lead to encouraging, sustaining and managing game play. The ability to control and customize the pace (1), interface (2), level of challenge (3) and receive immediate feedback (4) sustains attention and engagement. - Agency or control
This refers to the ability to regulate aspects of gameplay and contributes to player’s enjoyment. Reduced control may not necessarily decrease player’s enjoyment but reduced interactivity is likely to decrease player’s enjoyment. A loss of control may be seen as a challenge, which increases enjoyment. - Challenge
This refers to the varying degrees of complexity that are possible within a game based on one’s actions and are seen as contingent on the balance between the difficulty of the task and the player’s ability or skill set. Challenge is a contributor to intrinsic motivation in games. - Narrative
This refers to a connection between the creator and the audience and narrative makes people more likely to continue playing. It facilitates co-constructed plans between the player and the game and allows the player to experience diverse game threads rather than a single episodic sequence. It may serve as a sense-making tool that helps players attach personal relevance to the game’s story. - Feedback
This helps to regulate the flow of gameplay. It provides information about the efficacy of game actions and helps to sustain interest in continuing game play. This is most effective when integrated into gameplay and non-disruptive.
Educational games that provide feedback about players’ performance and tailor tasks or challenges to the player’s current capabilities are most likely to facilitate immersion. Multimodality refers to the presentation of game content knowledge through a combination of two or more sensory modalities. This could enhance learning.
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