A psychological disorder is difficult to define. There is no consensus on the definition of a psychological disorder. A psychological disorder definition should include the following four characteristics:Personal distressThe disorder must result in personal distress.DisabilityThe disorder must result in an impairment in some important area of life.Violation of social normsThe disorder must result in behaviour that violates social norms.Dysfunction The disorder must result (or be the result of) in an internal mechanism not working properly.Demonology refers to the doctrine that an evil being or spirit can dwell within a person and control his or her mind and body. People used to be treated very inhumane in asylums. They were chained and tortured. After this moral treatment started, humane treatment. This was abandoned later in 1800. After the connection between syphilis and paralysis, biological bases were seen as the cause of psychological disorders. After the observation of mass hysteria, a more psychological approach was being taken. The cathartic method refers to treating psychological disorders by reliving an earlier emotional trauma and releasing emotional tension by expressing previously forgotten thoughts about the events. Transference refers to the person’s responses to his or her analyst that seem to reflect attitudes and ways of behaving toward important people in the person’s past. The collective unconscious is part of the unconsciousness that is common to all human beings and consists of archetypes, basic categories for conceptualizing the world. Freud still has an influence on modern-day psychology in the following three assumptions: childhood experiences help shape adult personality (1), there are unconscious influences on behaviour (2) and the causes and purposes of human behaviour are not always obvious (3). Appraisals are part of cognitive therapy. ...

A correct diagnosis will allow the clinician to describe base rates, causes and treatment. Reliability and validity are the cornerstones of any diagnostic or assessment procedure. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement. Validity refers to measuring what you want to measure. Alternate form reliability refers to the extent to which scores on two forms of the test are consistent. Criterion validity is evaluated by determining whether a measure is associated expectedly with some other measure. If both variables are being measured at the same time, it is concurrent validity. The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM) is the diagnostic system used by many mental health professionals. Specific diagnostic criteria (1) and extensively described characteristics of diagnosis (2) were added to the DSM-III and have been retained ever since. There are some major changes of the DSM into the DSM-5:Removal of the multiaxial systemOrganizing diagnoses by causesThere are no proper tests to organize diagnoses around aetiology, so the diagnosis is based around symptoms. The chapters in DSM-5 are organized to reflect patterns of comorbidity and shared aetiology.Enhanced sensitivity to the developmental nature of psychopathologyAcross diagnoses, more detail is provided about the expression of symptoms in younger populations.New diagnosesNew diagnoses were added to the DSM-5.Combining diagnosesEthnic and cultural considerations in diagnosisThere are many different cultural influences on the risk factors for psychological disorders, the types of symptoms experienced, the willingness to seek help and the treatments available. There are some criticisms of the DSM:Too many diagnosesA side effect of the huge number of diagnostic categories is comorbidity. Different diagnoses do not seem to be distinct in their aetiology or treatment and this can lead to too many diagnoses. Categorical classification versus dimensional...

Anxiety disorders include fear and anxiety. Anxiety refers to apprehension over an anticipated problem. Fear is a reaction to immediate danger. Fear happens at the moment and anxiety involves a future threat. In all anxiety disorders, except for a panic disorder, the symptoms must persist for at least 6 months. The symptoms must persist for at least one month for a panic disorder.Clinical profile-specific phobia (e.g: snakes, spiders, heights):For AT LEAST 6 months:Marked and disproportionate fear consistently triggered by specific objects or situationsThe object or situation is avoided or else endured with intense anxietyThe object of phobia may also elicit intense disgust. Specific phobias are highly comorbid. Clinical profile social anxiety disorder:For AT LEAST 6 months:Marked and disproportionate fear consistently triggered by exposure to potential social examination Exposure to the trigger leads to intense anxiety about being evaluated negativelyTrigger situations are avoided or else endured with intense anxietyThe social anxiety disorder can be about a specific social situation (e.g: speaking in public) and doesn’t necessarily include all social situations. Severe social anxiety is highly comorbid with depression and alcohol abuse. People with social anxiety can demonstrate aggressive and hostile behaviour in the face of potential social rejection.Clinical profile panic disorder:Recurrent unexpected panic attacksAt least 1 month of concern or worry about the possibility of more attacks occurring or the consequences of an attack, or maladaptive behavioural changes because of the attacksPanic attacks are unrelated to specific situations. Clinical profile panic attack:Intense apprehension, terror and feelings of impending doomAND at least 4 symptoms:Shortness of breathHeart palpitationsNauseaUpset stomachChest pain...

Dissociation refers to some aspect of emotion, memory or experience being inaccessible consciously. Depersonalization/derealization involves a form of dissociation involving detachment. The person feels removed from the sense of self and surroundings. The lifetime prevalence of depersonalization/derealization disorder is about 2.5%. The lifetime prevalence of dissociative amnesia is about 7.5%. The lifetime prevalence of dissociative identity disorder is about 1%-3%. Clinical profile depersonalization/derealization disorder:DepersonalizationDerealizationSymptoms are persistent OR recurrentReality testing remains intactSymptoms are not explained by substances, another dissociative disorder, another psychological disorder of a medical conditionThis disorder involves no disturbances of memory. It usually begins in adolescence and is usually triggered by stress. It is very comorbid with personality disorders, depression and anxiety disorders. Depersonalization refers to experiences of detachment from one’s mental processes or body (e.g: as in a dream). Derealization refers to experiences of unreality of surroundings. Clinical profile dissociative amnesia:Inability to remember important autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be ordinary forgetfulnessThe amnesia is not explained by substances, or by other medical or psychological conditionsIt is dissociative fugue subtype IF the amnesia is associated with bewildered or purposeful wanderingThe amnesia usually disappears as suddenly as it began, with complete recovery and only a small chance of recurrence. Procedural memory remains intact during episodes of amnesia. Alcohol and medication can cause blackouts and potentially explain the amnesia. Dissociative amnesia and fugue are rare, even among people who have experienced intense trauma. People experiencing stress tend to...