This is the Chapter 2 of the book The Individual (de Bruin, E., 1st Edition). Which is content for the exam of the Theory component of Module 4 (The Individual) of the University of Twente, in the Netherlands.

Chapter 2:

Using research to inform practice

Counselling research: application scientific methods to answer questions

• Outcome research: benefits clients/ society
• Process research: ingredients of therapy that contribute outcome
• Therapist effects: qualities attributes therapist
• Professional knowledge: documenting/ dissemination what therapists have learned about how to work most effectively with different client groups

Development research into counselling and psychotherapy:

• Carl Rogers: Systematic programme of therapy research. Focused following questions:

1. Is therapy effective?
2. What are the processes that contribute to the effectiveness?

• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT): empirically validated. Factors that make difference to outcome: client preferences, therapist personal qualities, client/ therapist fit (capacity establish collaborative relationship)
• Methodological pluralism: therapy complex/ hard to understand --> researchers need to use all methodological strategies available

Research into outcomes of therapy:

• Effectiveness: document outcomes therapy routine situation
• Efficacy: analysis outcome in controlled conditions, with defined groups and comparison between alternative treatments (how well approach does in ideal circumstances)
• Randomised clinical/ controlled trials: follow-up questionnaires

• Spontaneous remission: psychological problems gradually less severe, owing ot non-professional sources or because person learned to deal with situation
• Waiting list: clients not offered first appointment for some time, then assessed beginning/ end.
• Randomised controlled trials (RCTs): randomly allocate different treatments or placebo condition
• Meta-analysis: statistical technique, average amount of client change reported for each approach/ each separate study --> answers to whether some therapy approaches are more effective than others

• Practice-based research: data gathered routine everyday therapy practice

• CORE (Clinical Outcomes Routine Evaluation): measures client distress in terms well-being/ symptoms/ functioning/ and risk

• Qualitative outcome research: confirmation existence fundamental transformational change in clients

• Qualitive approach: qualitative follow-up interviews --> time-consuming/ expensive

• Outcome-oriented case studies: establish potential effectiveness intervention/ therapy model

• Hermeneutic single case studies/ N=1 time series case studies/ case series investigations --> case-based inquiry, establish innovative/ under-researched form of practice capable producing positive outcomes for clients

• Limitations self-report approaches: symptom measures/ satisfaction scales/ qualitative interviews --> transference: significant change personality structure, different expression in way person relates to others
• Action research: aim is to facilitate cycle of continuous service of improvement

• Collaborative or participative approach: professionals service users work together to collect/ analyse data, enhancing service delivery

Research into process therapy:

Process study: observes, measures, analyses therapeutic elements associated with change --> research consist detail definition/ analysis things counsellors/ psychotherapists do --> deeper understanding commonly used therapeutic activities/ strategies

• Client-centred perspective: examine client’s self-concepts during/ after therapy

• Q-sort: arrange set self-statements describe “how I see myself now” and “how I would ideally like to be” --> measure of self acceptance.
• Necessary and sufficient (for relationships): empathy/ congruence/ unconditional positive regard
• Relationship Inventory: assess “core conditions” perceived by clients/ counsellors/ external observers

• Psychodynamic perspective: relationship counsellor/ client only understood in context --> psychodynamic process studies require investigation of whole cases

• Core conflictual relationship theme (CCRT): technique exploring transference --> components that yield a picture of conflictual relationship/ transference patterns --> different judges discuss to arrive at a consensus view

• Events paradigm: approach to process research, consists of finding change events within therapy, identify actions enabled events to occur --> not grounded theoretical orientationP
• Process experienced by the client --> qualitative research

• Interpersonal process recall: enable clients re-live/ re-experience thoughts/ feelings during sessions

• Case studies: primary vehicle of development of theory/ practice in early years of psychotherapy --> aim find rigorous/ unbiased way of observing/ analysing individuals

• Behavioural case studies:

• N=1 study: tracking changes in limited number variables predictors of change as result of counselling --> demonstrates effectiveness particular type of intervention with particular category of client

• Assimilation model of therapeutic change: systematic analysis of case data

• Theory building case studies: developing deeper understanding way therapist immediacy functions in therapy
• Quasi-judicial case studies: 2 research teams are employed --> 1. Task of arguing that outcome of case is due to therapy, 2. Task arguing changes occurred result extra-therapeutic factors
• Narrative case studies: qualitative inquiry, client/ therapist tell their story taking part in therapy
• Pragmatic case studies: practitioners writing case experiences in standardised fashion --> enabled database to be created, invaluable resource

Professional knowledge:

Professional knowledge research: document/ analyse experience/ insights arising from practice counsellor/ psychotherapist

First person research:

Autoethnography: qualitative research seek to analyse personal/ subjective experiences in relation to topic of research --> uses techniques for systematically writing about personal experience

Ethical issues in therapy research:

Ethical issues:  avoidance of harm/ adequacy of informed consent/ confidentiality