Foundation of psychologyChapter 4Establishing psychology as an independent academic discipline By 1850 there was a thriving literature of psychological subjects in Germany.The universities reform in Germany Universities in the German states for a long time were dominated by the humanities and religion.This was a feature proponents of the Enlightenment fought against.The Enlightenment ideas mainly came from a group of academics who had been expelled from the University of Leipzig, because of their critical attitude and modern ways of thinking.A reform took place after the defeat of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805-1806.The defeat by the French particularly upset the Prussians, who decided it was high time to modernise their country.The school system was reorganised and a new university model was installed.Whereas before the universities had been places of education, mainly aimed at the training of physicians, lawyers and clergy, scientific research now became part and parcel of an academic career with its own financing.Wissenschaft: scholarship and scientific researchBildung: the making of good citizensThe power of the university was put in the hands of a limited number of professors who were given academic freedom and resources to pursue their interests and who had a number of assistants and...