How do persuasion and attitude work? - Chapter 6

What is this chapter about?

This chapter is about persuasion and attitude change. It covers various topics related to how people are persuaded by others and how their attitudes and beliefs can be changed.

The chapter begins by discussing the processes of persuasion, including the source of the message, the message itself, and the audience that is being persuaded. It then examines the effects of different persuasive strategies, such as the use of fear appeals and the role of emotions in persuasion. The chapter also explores the factors that influence the effectiveness of persuasive messages, including the characteristics of the audience, the context in which the message is presented, and the use of persuasive tactics such as social influence and cognitive dissonance. Finally, the chapter discusses the resistance to persuasion strategies: reactance, forewarning, inoculation, attitude bolstering, and self-affirmation.

What is the effect of arguments and persuasion on behaviour?

Attitudes, as can be seen in chapter 5, are evaluations of people, objects, and ideas that influence our behaviour and decision-making. Attitudes can be changed through persuasion, which is an attempt to change someone's attitude through communication. Arguments are messages that are used for persuasion.

Attitudes play an important role in behaviour. Thus, persuasion can influence behaviour, but the effectiveness of this influence depends on factors such as the strength of arguments, the source and message, and individual and contextual factors. Fear appeals and the use of emotionans in arguments are important persuasive strategies. Fear appeals are a common persuasive strategy that induce in individuals in order to change their behaviour or attitudes. Fear appeals can be effective when they are well-designed, such as by providing specific recommendations for how to avoid the fear-inducing situation. However, fear appeals can also backfire if they are too strong or if individuals feel that they are not able to control the situation. Emotional appeals can also be used to create positive or negative associations with an object or behaviour. Positive emotions, such as humor or joy, can be used to create positive associations with the message, while negative emotions, such as anger or disgust, can be used to create negative associations. Emotions can be used to enhance message processing and retention. However, emotional appeals are also risky, because individuals may try to resist persuasion if they feel they are being manipulated.

How does persuasive communication work?

Persuasive communication is attempting to change someone's attitude through communication. According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), the extent to which people elaborate on a message determines how much they are persuaded by it. Elaboration refers to the extent to which people think about and analyze the arguments presented in a message. In the central route of persuasion, people carefully scrutinize the message and its arguments. They are more likely to be persuaded when the message is strong and convincing. In contrast, in the peripheral route, people are influenced by cues such as the speaker's credibility or attractiveness. They are more likely to be persuaded when the speaker is likable or seems trustworthy, even if the message itself is weak.

The source of the message and the message itself can impact persuasion. Factors such as expertise, trustworthiness, and emotion can all influence how persuasive a message is. Factors that impact message processing, such as distraction or cognitive load, can also affect persuasion. When people are distracted or have limited cognitive resources, they may not elaborate on the message and be more susceptible to peripheral cues.

Resistance to persuasion can occur due to various psychological defense mechanisms, such as reactance and selective exposure. Reactance occurs when people feel their freedom to choose or their control over a situation is threatened, and they react by asserting their independence. Selective exposure refers to people seeking out information that confirms their preexisting beliefs and avoiding information that challenges them.

Inoculation theory suggests that resistance to persuasion can be increased by exposing people to a weakened form of an opposing argument in order to strengthen their resistance to it. Inoculation helps people develop counterarguments to prepare for potential persuasion attempts.

The success of persuasive messages depends on a variety of factors, including the message itself, the target audience, and the context in which it is presented. A message that is persuasive for one person may not be persuasive for another, and the same message may be more or less effective depending on the context in which it is presented.

What are the dual-process models of persuasion?

The central route and the peripheral route of persuasion are not just important fort he elaboration on the arguments. They play an important role in persuasion as a whole. These models suggest that there are two main routes to persuasion.

The central route is characterized by careful, systematic processing of a persuasive message, and is more likely to result in long-lasting changes in attitudes and behaviour. The peripheral route involves processing information using heuristics or mental shortcuts, such as the credibility or attractiveness of the source, and is more likely to result in temporary changes in attitudes and behaviour.

The effectiveness of each route depends on various factors, such as the relevance of the message, the ability and motivation of the listener to process information, and the credibility of the source. Dual-process models of persuasion also suggest that the two routes can interact with each other, such that peripheral cues may influence the processing of central route information, and vice versa. Researchers have used a variety of methods, such as brain imaging and physiological measures, to study the neural and cognitive processes involved in the central and peripheral routes to persuasion.

Dual-process models of persuasion have implications for understanding the factors that influence persuasion in different contexts, such as these:

• Advertisements. Advertisers can use peripheral cues such as celebrity endorsements, catchy music, and attractive visuals to grab attention and create a positive emotional response to a product. However, to create long-lasting changes in attitudes and behaviour, they may also need to provide strong arguments that are relevant to the audience.

• Politics. Political messages may use peripheral cues such as the attractiveness and charisma of the speaker to create a positive emotional response and gain attention. However, to create long-lasting changes in attitudes and behaviour, they may need to provide strong arguments that are relevant to the audience's values and beliefs.

• Health communication. Health messages may need to use both peripheral cues and strong arguments to be effective. An example is the influence of anti-smoking campaigns. These campaigns often use graphic images of the negative health consequences of smoking, which can grab attention and create a strong emotional response. However, to create lasting behaviour change, the campaigns may also need to provide strong arguments about the health benefits of quitting smoking and the effectiveness of available resources for quitting. By using both peripheral cues and strong arguments, anti-smoking campaigns may be more effective in persuading people to quit smoking.

What is compliance?

Compliance is changing your behaviour in response to a direct request from another person. Compliance can be achieved through different techniques:

• The foot-in-the-door technique is done by making a small request first, which is more likely to be accepted, followed by a larger request that is the actual target request.

• The door-in-the-face technique is the opposite of the foot-in-the-door technique and is done by making a large, unreasonable request first, which is likely to be rejected, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request that is the actual target request.

• Lowballing is done by making an initial offer or agreement that seems favorable, only to change the terms of the deal once the other person has committed to it.

• Reciprocity is the social norm of returning a favor or gift after receiving one, which can be used to induce compliance.

Compliance can also be influenced by other factors, including the status and likability of the requester, the perceived importance or urgency of the request, and social norms and expectations. Resisting compliance attempts can be difficult, but it is possible to do so by recognizing and understanding the techniques used, being aware of one's own values and goals, and using assertiveness and refusal skills when necessary. This can be important to not be manipulated into doing things you actually don’t want to do.

What is cognitive dissonance and how does attitude change because of it?

Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that individuals experience psychological discomfort when they hold two or more inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes. This discomfort motivates them to reduce the inconsistency by changing one of their cognitions.

Festinger's classic study examined how payment affected cognitive dissonance and attitude change. Participants who were paid 1 dollar to lie about enjoying a boring task experienced greater cognitive dissonance and attitude change than those who were paid 20 dollars, as the small payment was insufficient justification for the lie. The insufficient justification effect suggests that individuals experience greater attitude change when they perform a behaviour inconsistent with their attitudes and have insufficient justification for it. Self-perception theory proposes that individuals infer their attitudes from their own behaviour and circumstances, and attitude change may occur when individuals observe their behaviour that is inconsistent with their attitudes.

These theories have important implications for persuasion. Persuasive messages may be more effective when individuals have insufficient justification for accepting the message or engage in behaviour consistent with the message, encouraging self-perception of the new attitude.

How does resistance to persuasion work?

There are several strategies for resisting persuasion. It is important to know these strategies, as they can help someone to not be manipulated into doing things they actually would not want to do.

Reactance is a psychological response to a perceived threat to one's freedom or autonomy. When individuals feel that their ability to make choices or decisions is being restricted or limited, they may experience reactance, which leads them to resist persuasion attempts. Reactance can be triggered by persuasive messages that are perceived as attempts to control or influence behaviour in a way that is seen as limiting or infringing upon individuals' freedom. When reactance occurs, individuals may become more determined to resist the message and maintain their sense of control over their own attitudes and behaviours. This is less of a conscious strategy and more a subconscious process, but it does play an important role in resisting persuasion.

Forewarning refers to the practice of informing individuals that they will be targeted with a persuasive message. This can lead individuals to be more resistant to the message, as they are prepared to defend against it. Forewarning can be effective because it allows individuals to anticipate the message and prepare themselves to resist it. This can include developing counterarguments or strengthening their existing attitudes and beliefs. By being forewarned, individuals may be more likely to recognize the persuasive intent of the message and resist it.

Inoculation means exposing individuals to weak versions of a persuasive message and providing them with counterarguments, in order to build up resistance to more persuasive messages. This can make individuals less susceptible to persuasion attempts, as they have already considered and rejected similar arguments. By being exposed to weaker versions of the message, individuals can develop counterarguments and defenses that make them more resistant to the message when it is presented in a stronger form. Inoculation can be an effective strategy for building up resistance to persuasion and maintaining control over one's attitudes and behaviours.

Attitude bolstering means strengthening one's own attitudes and beliefs to resist persuasion attempts. This can be accomplished by seeking out supportive information or by reaffirming one's values and beliefs. By strengthening their own attitudes and beliefs, individuals can make themselves more resistant to persuasion attempts that are inconsistent with their existing views. This can involve seeking out information that supports their existing attitudes or engaging in behaviours that reaffirm their values and beliefs.

Self-affirmation means focusing on one's own strengths and positive attributes, which can reduce the impact of persuasive messages. This strategy is effective because it enhances individuals' self-esteem and sense of control. By focusing on their own positive qualities and accomplishments, individuals can bolster their sense of self-worth and reduce the impact of persuasive messages that challenge their attitudes and beliefs. Self-affirmation can be an effective strategy for resisting persuasion and maintaining control over one's own attitudes and behaviours.