What is a leader and how do you become one? - Chapter 12

Leaders have a big influence on people, groups, and organizations. In this chapter, leadership is defined and different types of leaders are discussed. Furthermore, different approaches to leadership are discussed that attempt to explain why some people become leaders. After that, substitutes and neutralization of leadership are discussed. Finally, the latest research topics are discussed.

What is the definition of leadership?

Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence the other members of the group or organization and to help them achieve their goals. The leaders have a large influence. Leader effectiveness is the degree to which the leader actually manages to achieve the goals of the group or organization.

Formal leaders are managers who have been given legal guidance to exert influence to help achieve organizational goals. Informal leaders have not received formal authority, but sometimes exert the same influence on other members as formal leaders and sometimes even more. Often this is because these people have a certain skill or talent.

Early approaches to leadership

No single approach to leadership is the 'right' and 'only' approach. There are multiple approaches and complement each other.

Two early approaches to leadership were given by the trait approach and the behavioral approach.

1. The trait approach identifies the long-lasting personal characteristics that distinguish a leader from a follower and distinguishes an effective leader from an ineffective one. These characteristics are intelligence, task-relevant knowledge, dominance, self-confidence, energy/activity levels, stress resistance, integrity/honesty, and emotional maturity. Some properties are not clear whether people who possess these qualities become effective leaders, or that leaders take on these qualities after a long time (since properties can change over years).

2. The behavioral approach to leadership identifies the specific behaviors carried out by effective leaders. Researchers found that most of the behavior of leaders related to consideration or the initiation of structures. Leaders influence the people around them mainly through daily behavior and decisions.

Behavior which indicates that a leader has respect for his employees and trusts them is called having consideration. A leader who expresses this behavior shows his followers that he cares about their well-being and is involved in how they feel and what they think. The initiating of structures includes behaviors that leaders take on to ensure that the work is being completed and that the subordinates do their work well.

Consideration and initiating structure are both complementary and independent behaviors of a leader. They are complementary because leaders can express both behaviors. They are also independent because the extent to which a leader shows consideration does not say anything about the extent to which a leader initiate structures and vice versa.

The behavioral approach can also work through reward and punishment. Reinforcement increases the chance of desired behavior and punishment reduces the chance that undesirable behavior occurs.

• Leader reward behavior occurs when a leader rewards a subordinate when they act on the desired behavior.

• Leader punishment behavior occurs when a leader reacts negatively to a subordinate if the subordinate exhibits unwanted behavior.

The behavior of the leader can be measured with two questionnaires. The Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire asks subordinates to indicate to what extent leaders exhibit behavior with regard to consideration and structure. The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire asks the leaders themselves to indicate which behaviors will lead to successful leadership with regard to consideration and structures.

Researchers have also developed methods for measuring rewarding behavior and beating behavior of the leader. The properties approach to leadership deals with how leaders are and the behavioral approach to leadership deals with what leaders do, yet not everything has been said about this. Both approaches fail to address the influence that the environment or situation has on leadership. The behavioral approach addresses which behaviors are effective, but lacks the point that behaviors are affected by the situation. The properties approach lacks the same, it is not explained that properties are effective in one situation, but ineffective in the other.

What does Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership involve?

Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership acknowledges that the leaders' effectiveness is determined by the characteristics of the leader and also by the situation in which they find themselves. It deals with why some leaders are more effective than others even though they have the same capabilities, and why a particular leader is effective in a particular situation but not in another.

Just like the characteristics approach, Fiedler also recognizes that personal characteristics influence the effectiveness of leaders. He identifies two leadership styles, relationship-oriented and task-oriented, and states that all leaders are characterized by one of these two styles. Leaders who are relationship oriented, like to be liked by their subordinates and develop good working relationships. Their second priority is that the work is done well. Leaders that are task-oriented want their subordinates to perform at a higher level and complete all their tasks. Maintaining good relationships with the subordinates is their second priority. Leadership style is difficult to change and remains the same in every situation. A different leadership style is needed for each situation, so organizations must either assign a specific leader to a specific situation or change the situation so that it can match the leader's characteristics.

A scale to measure the style is the least preferred employee scale (Least Preferred Co-employee scale, LPC). Leaders are asked to think about the employee they are least likely to work with and to indicate how the person scores on a number of dimensions. Relationship-oriented leaders (high LPC leaders) described their least preferred employee relatively positively. Task-oriented leaders (low LPC leaders) described this employee negatively.

Relationship-oriented leaders wanted to think positively about this employee because a positive view helps to create a good relationship. Task-oriented leaders, on the other hand, think negatively because the person makes it difficult to achieve the goals.

Fiedler further states that the situation varies in their favorability for managing. This is the degree of ease in which the situation allows you to easily lead people to a high level of performance and to meet their goals. According to Fiedler, three characteristics of the situation determine the degree of suitability: the relationship leader-employee, the structure of tasks, and the position power of the leader. The leader-employee relationship is good when employees trust their leader, appreciate and have faith in them, and when the situation is suitable for leading. The task structure is the extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clear. Task structure is high when there are specific goals and every employee knows how to achieve this. The position power is the amount of formal power that a leader has. The dominance of a leader is high when he has the power to reward or punish employees.

All combinations of suitability are possible: good and bad leader-employee relations, high and low structure of tasks, and high and low position power, which generate a total of 8 leadership situations that Fiedler calls octants. Situations suitable for leadership, for example, are situations in which leader-employee relationship is good, task structure is high and the position of power is also high.

The contingency model states that a leadership style is a long-term personal characteristic. Which style is most effective depends on the situation. An organization must assign leaders to situations where they are most effective, or change the situation to suit the leader. According to the theory, task-oriented leaders are most suitable in very suitable or very inappropriate situations for management. Relationship-oriented leaders would be more suitable in average suitable situations.

New contemporary approaches

Newer theories on leadership have been proposed in recent years. These theories are based on the conditions approach, just like Fiedler's model.

House's path-goal theory describes how leaders can motivate their subordinates to achieve group goals and organizational goals, to perform at a high level, and the types of behaviors they can exhibit to help them. The path-goal theory states that effective leaders must follow three guidelines to motivate their subordinates based on the expectation theory of motivation.

• The first guideline is to determine which outcomes subordinates at work should try to achieve, for example, which needs they try to satisfy. After this, the leader must have control over those outcomes and the possibility to give or not give those results.

• The second directive is to reward subordinates for performing at a high level by giving the results that the subordinate values.

• The third guideline is to make the subordinates believe that they can achieve the work goals and perform at a high level. Leaders can do this by showing the routes that can lead to the goal, by removing possible obstacles and by showing confidence in the capacities of the subordinate.

House also identifies four types of behaviors that leaders can express to motivate subordinates:

• Directive behavior (applying structure) shows which tasks have to be done and how subordinates have to do that.

• Supportive behavior (similar to consideration) indicates that the leader thinks of their well-being and does his or her best for them.

• Participative behavior allows subordinates to participate in decisions that affect them.

• Achievement-oriented behavior insists that subordinates do their best. This behavior is, among other things, setting high goals for subordinates, having high-performance expectations, and expressing confidence in their possibilities.

In determining what behavior the leader must exhibit, he or she must know the nature of the subordinate and the work that he or she does. For an employee who experiences a lot of stress, supporting behavior can be effective and for an employee who performs complex and difficult tasks, directive behavior can be effective.

The Vroom and Yetton model describes different ways in which leaders can make decisions and gives leaders guidelines for determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision making. Leadership can be increased by allowing subordinates to participate in decision making and problem-solving. Participation ensures that subordinates accept the decision or support the decision. Participation can also lead to better decisions if, for example, the subordinate has information that the leader does not have. By participating, the subordinate can also grow and develop in the profession and thus perform higher and create a higher level of satisfaction.

Participation can also have bad consequences, the biggest disadvantage is time. Another disadvantage is that the subordinate does not agree with the decision-making and starts to wonder how others do their work. This can lead to conflict and lower employee commitment. Given these advantages and disadvantages, Vroom and Yetton have created a model from which it can be determined to what extent and when subordinates should take part in making decisions.

First, the leader must determine whether an individual decision or a group decision must be made. Then they have a choice of 4 different styles of decision-making, which vary in the extent to which subordinates participate in the decision.

• Autocratic: The leader makes the decision without the participation of subordinates.

• Consultative: Subordinates have some influence, but the leader makes the decision.

• Group: The group makes the decision, the leader is just a group member

• Delegated: The leader gives all responsibility to make a decision to the subordinates.

The following criteria should be taken into consideration when choosing a style: the nature of the tasks to be performed by the subordinates, the level of interdependence of the task to be produced, and the characteristics of the subordinates, such as level of skills.

The leader-member exchange theory describes the different relationships that can develop between a leader and subordinate and describes what the leader and subordinate give and receive from the relationship. The theory focuses on the leader-subordinate duo, which is the relationship between the leader and the subordinate in which they are seen as a pair.

The theory states that every leader-subordinate duo develops a unique relationship that arises from the interactions between the two. Even though each relationship is unique, the theory states that two types of relationships develop in a leader-subordinate duo. In some duos, subordinates have a special relationship with their leader, which is characterized by mutual trust, commitment, and commitment. Subordinates who develop such a relationship are in the so-called in-group.

Other subordinates have a more traditional relationship with their leader. In this duo, the leader relies on his authority and position in the organization to influence the subordinate and the subordinate is expected to perform the work in an acceptable manner and follow the rules of the leader. These subordinates are in the out-group and are often less satisfied and perform worse than subordinates in the in-group.

It turns out that leaders who have a good relationship with their own supervisor also develop good relationships with their subordinates themselves. It also appears that leaders with a good relationship with their supervisor advance faster in an organization. The best thing a leader can do is to develop a good relationship with as many subordinates as possible and place them in the in-group as they perform better on average and are more loyal than the out-group.

What are leadership substitutions and neutralizations?

Research shows that leadership can make a difference. But some researchers doubt that this is always the case. These researchers suggest that leaders sometimes have little effect on the attitude and behavior of their subordinates.

Steven Kerr and John Jermier argue that leadership substitutions and neutralizations sometimes cause the influence of leaders to diminish.

A leadership substitution is something that replaces the need for a leader and makes leadership unnecessary. For example, if someone has a high intrinsic motivation, he or she does not need to be told by a leader to work hard.

A leadership neutralization is something that prevents the leader from having an influence and nullifies all efforts of the leader. Characteristics of the subordinate, the work, the group, and the organization can all be potential neutralizations for leadership.

A substitution for leadership is therefore functional for an organization because it saves time for the leader to do other things but neutralizations are dysfunctional because the leader lacks influence.

Finally, some researchers believe that attribution errors and stereotypes can sometimes lead to employees having a distorted image of their leader. Subordinates sometimes want to believe that leaders can really make a difference and assign them qualities or powers that they do not actually possess. This is called the romance of leadership.

Which new research topics about leadership are there?

Research into leadership is continuous. This includes new research topics such as transformative and charismatic leadership, the effect of the leader's mood on his or her subordinates, and gender and leadership.

1. Transformational leadership

Bass has a theory about how leaders can influence and transform their subordinates and organizations. Transformational leadership occurs when a leader transforms his or her subordinates in three major ways and together results in trust in the leader, behaviors that lead to achieving the group goals or organizational goals, and motivation to perform at a high level.

• Transforming leaders increase the awareness of the value of the task and the importance of performing well.

• Transforming leaders make subordinates realize that it is important to grow, develop and perform personally

• Transforming leaders motivate their subordinates to work for the organization rather than exclusively for their own benefit.

How do leaders influence these subordinates to come to these changes? Transforming leaders are charismatic leaders: leaders who have a vision of how good things can be in an organization in contrast to how they are today. They can convey this vision well and with great enthusiasm. To convey this vision to subordinates, charismatic leaders have a high self-confidence that encourages subordinates to respect and admire the leaders.

Transforming leaders influence their subordinates by means of intellectual stimulation to become aware of the problems in the group and organization and by seeing these problems through a new perspective: the leaders perspective.

Transforming leaders also influence their subordinates by showing developmental consideration: behavior of a leader that is supportive and encouraging to the subordinates and gives them opportunities to develop and grow in a job, by learning new skills.

Transforming leadership must be distinguished from transactional leadership. In transactional leadership, leaders motivate their subordinates only by giving rewards for good performance and punishing poor performance. Transforming leaders can also display transactional behavior but they go a step further by involving the subordinates in his or her vision and putting personal interests in the interest of the organization. Transforming leadership leads to higher satisfaction and performance among subordinates and arouses their confidence.

2. Emotional intelligence

The mood of the leader can also be an important factor as to why certain leaders are effective and other leaders are not. Subordinates work and perform better if the leader is optimistic instead of pessimistic. However, little research has been done so far. The level of guidance also depends on emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence can help a leader to develop a collective vision shared by the entire organization and to encourage subordinates to work enthusiastically to achieve that vision. It can also help leaders to develop a meaningful identity for the organization and create an atmosphere of trust and collaboration. Finally, emotional intelligence can also help to remain flexible in rapidly changing environments.

3. Gender

In organizations, there are opinions about the differences between men and women. A general stereotype is that women are supportive, caring, and generally good at maintaining interpersonal relationships. Men are more task-oriented. If these stereotypes are true, gender has an effect on leadership.

However, research shows that when men and women have leadership positions, they behave in the same way. One difference is that women have a more democratic style and men have a more autocratic style. There are two potential explanations for this difference:

• The first is that the interpersonal skills of women are better than those of men.

• The other is that women in leadership positions face more opposition from subordinates than men. Gender stereotypes are the reason that a male leader is accepted faster than a female.

However, research shows that women may have better leadership qualities than men in certain aspects. It turns out that after evaluation by employees, supervisors, and subordinates, women generally get slightly better figures in areas such as communication and listening, work quality, and motivating others. On the other hand, men are slightly better at networking and often take every chance to show that they are leaders. It is important that leaders behave in an ethically and socially responsible manner, and they have an exemplary role. Nowadays even more attention is paid to choosing a leader than before. A leader must also be confident.