Cultural Psychology by S.J. Heine (third edition) – Summary chapter 3

Cultural variation can be explained in two ways:

1. Evoked culture
   This states that cultural norms develop as a biologically encoded response to certain ecological factors (e.g. parasite prevalence leads to physical attractiveness being important in mate selection). 
2. Transmitted culture
   This states that cultural norms are learned from other individuals, which leads to spreading of the norm that has been developed.

The effects of transmitted culture are greater than the effects of evoked culture. Cultural norms are adaptive responses to features of the ecology (e.g. geography has an influence on the cultural norms that develop).

An example of ecological factors changing the culture can be found in China. Rice growing communities became more interdependent and wheat growing communities became more independent, demonstrating that ecological differences can lead to differences in psychology.

Proximal causes refer to causes that have direct and immediate relations with their effects. Distal causes refer to the initial differences that lead to effects over longer periods, often through indirect relations.

There are several characteristics of cultural ideas that are more likely to spread:

1. Useful ideas
   Cultural ideas that are useful are more likely to be transmitted to others.
2. Communicable ideas
   Cultural ideas that are easy to communicate to others are more likely to be transmitted to others, meaning that less complex ideas are more likely to spread.
3. Minimally counterintuitive ideas
   Cultural ideas that are mostly intuitive but have some aspects that are counterintuitive are more likely to be transmitted to others.
4. Emotional ideas
   Cultural ideas that evoke shared emotions are more likely to be transmitted to others, as this allows people to bond with each other.

Cultures have been changing because of globalization; which leads to cultures becoming more homogeneous at an international level. However, at a local level, there is glocalization; cultures becoming more diverse. A result of globalization is the existence of hybrid cultural products.

Cultures persist because cultural innovations are constrained by pre-existing structures. There appears to be a disproportionate influence on cultural evolution by early ecological factors (e.g. gun-slave cycle). Pluralistic ignorance, a situation in which a majority of group members privately rejects a norm but incorrectly assumes that most others accept it and, therefore, goes along with it, also allows cultures to persist.

There is a rise of individualism because of leisure activities that are socially isolating (e.g. television) (1), more work and financial pressures (2), a lack of nationally unifying events (e.g. war) (3) and an increase in sub-urbanisation (4).

The Flynn effect states that there is a rise of IQ over generations which might be due to improved nutrition (1), better and more education (2) or because pop culture is more complex (3). The dynamic social impact theory states that individuals come to influence each other and primarily do so based on how often the individuals interact.

Negative stereotypes tend to be motivated by beliefs that stem from a conflict of resources (1), remnants of historical conflict (2), disenfranchisement (3) and ignorance about a group’s cultural practice (4).