Study Guide with articles for Group behavior and cooperation

Study Guide with articles for Group behavior and cooperation

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    • Group formation and influence
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    • Intergroup contact and conflict
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Artikelsamenvatting bij Are groups more or less than the sum of their members? The moderating role of individual identification van Baumeiser e.a. - 2016

Artikelsamenvatting bij Are groups more or less than the sum of their members? The moderating role of individual identification van Baumeiser e.a. - 2016

Volgens de auteurs van dit manuscript profiteren groepen ervan wanneer individuen differentiëren. Differentiatie of differentiëren is het proces waarbij een homogeen geheel wordt verdeeld in delen met verschillende eigenschappen. Volgens de auteurs(en veel ander sociaal psychologisch onderzoek) zijn de relaties tussen individuen in groepen niet simpelweg terug te leiden naar eigenschappen van ieder individu apart. Individuen vormen niet de groep, maar spelen een rol binnen het systeem van een groep. De auteurs stellen dat gedifferentieerde rollen binnen een groep zorgen voor meer krachtige en effectieve systemen.

Wanneer we kijken naar de wetenschappelijke literatuur over groepen, blijken niet één maar zelfs twee theorieën te stellen dat de groep niet slechts een som is van de individuen. Echter, deze twee theorieën spreken elkaar tegen. Één lijn van onderzoek, waarvan Le Bon de grondlegger is, stelt dat groepen in het algemeen slechter presteren dan de individuen in hun eentje. De andere lijn van onderzoek, waarvan onder anderen Adam Smith een belangrijke aanhanger is, stelt juist dat groepen veel meer produceren en bereiken dan geïsoleerde individuen ooit zouden kunnen.

In dit artikel stellen de auteurs als eerste dat beide onderzoekslijnen een kern van waarheid hebben. Het is inderdaad zo dat het werken in groepen er soms voor zorgt dat mensen harder werken en beter presteren, maar er ook voor kan zorgen dat mensen er de kantjes van af lopen en slechter presteren dan wanneer ze alleen werken. Ten tweede bieden zij de hypothese dat het verschil tussen deze twee theorieën grotendeels verklaard kan worden door de differentiatie van individuen. Ze stellen dat groepen beter presteren dan individuen wanneer de leden van de groep als individuen worden gezien en verantwoordelijk worden gehouden, en als afzonderlijke eenheden een bijdrage leveren aan de groep. De slechtste uitkomsten van groepsprocessen komen juist wanneer de individuele identiteiten ondergedompeld worden in de groep, en niet meer als individu zijn te herkennen.

De theorie: waarom zouden individuen willen bijdragen aan een groep?

Deel uitmaken van een groepssysteem vraagt van individuen het opzij zetten van een deel van het eigenbelang, ondanks dat de leden van nature liever voor het eigen gewin gaan ten koste van een groep. Het voordeel dat te behalen valt voor een groep, is dus afhankelijk van het overwinnen van de eigen belangen van de leden, zodat zij gaan samenwerken en bijdragen leveren in plaats van profiteren van de groep. 

Er zijn twee redeneringen die mensen zullen motiveren om aan de welvaart van een groep bij te dragen, zelfs als dat ten koste gaat van henzelf. De eerste is wanneer ze zich veel met de groep identificeren – ze zullen dan willen bijdragen aan de welvaart van deze groep en hier ook voldoening uit halen. De tweede reden om bijdragen te leveren aan de groep is omdat andere leden druk op hen leggen om dit te doen (bijvoorbeeld door materiële of sociale stimulansen).

Maximaal individueel profijt kan behaald worden door te profiteren van de voordelen van de groep zonder zelf moeite te hebben gedaan om deze te behalen. Echter, als alle leden van de groep dat proberen, zullen er helemaal geen voordelen te behalen zijn in de groep. Groepen verlenen de leden dus alleen voordelen wanneer deze leden een bijdrage leveren aan de groep, zelfs als dit op korte termijn ten koste gaat van hun eigen belangen.

Er worden twee complementaire stappen gemaakt

De opkomst van een groep kan, heuristiek gezien, in twee stappen worden ingedeeld. De eerste stap heeft te maken met de voordelen van zich in een groep bevinden, in plaats van alleen zijn. Cohesie is een hoge prioriteit voor de groep, omdat het de leden loyaal en gemotiveerd houdt om met de groep samen te werken. Het doel voor het individu is geaccepteerd worden door de groep. Een gedeelde identiteit is het belangrijkste in deze eerste stap. De tweede stap die gemaakt wordt, is het differentiëren van rollen. Dit zorgt voor voordelen en kansen voor individuen. In de eerste stap wordt er dus een duidelijke nadruk gelegd op hoe de leden van een groep hetzelfde zijn, terwijl in de tweede stap de verschillen tussen individuen worden benadrukt.

Het differentiëren van rollen wordt niet gedaan om per se verschillend van elkaar te zijn. Het wordt gedaan om het systeem van de groep te faciliteren. Winst voor het systeem houdt in dat een systematisch georganiseerde groep betere resultaten kan behalen dan hetzelfde aantal individuen die samenwerken zonder systeem. Het cruciale verschil van een systeem, is dat deze afhangt van gedifferentieerde rollen. Specialisatie van de leden zorgt voor meer efficiëntie en een betere kwaliteit.

Toewijding aan de groep (de eerste stap) kan mensen motiveren hun best te doen op korte termijn, maar op lange termijn is het beter om individuele leden verantwoordelijk te houden voor hun daden. Daarom is de tweede stap (differentiatie) nodig. Het doel van het individu verandert ook in deze tweede stap: het op een juiste manier vervullen van zijn eigen rol is nu belangrijk.

Dat mensen zowel een drang hebben om hetzelfde en tegelijkertijd verschillend van elkaar te zijn ligt ten grondslag aan de Optimal Distinctiveness theorie van Brewer. Deze theorie impliceert echter dat mensen differentiëren om zich af te zetten tegen de natuurlijke drang om erbij te horen. De auteurs contrasteren dat idee – zij zien de individuele differentiatie juist als een strategie om er bij te horen.

Gelden deze twee stappen altijd?

Voor deze discussie is het nuttig om onderscheid te maken tussen twee soorten taken: productieve prestatie en het gebruik van informatie (zoals groepsbeslissingen maken en gezamenlijke kennis delen). Beide kunnen profiteren van de gedifferentieerde individuen, maar de rol van de groep is anders in beide situaties.

Wanneer productieve prestatie moeite kost, profiteren groepen van differentiatie in de zin dat de individuele inzet gecontroleerd kan worden, en mensen verantwoordelijk kunnen worden gehouden voor de uitkomsten. Mensen die zich hard inzetten kunnen worden beloond, mensen die de kantjes ervan af lopen kunnen worden gestraft. Voor taken die met informatie te maken hebben, profiteren leden van differentiatie doordat individuele gedachten en meningen worden gestimuleerd, in plaats van dat iedereen maar met de groep meepraat.

Anonimiteit is dus niet het tegenovergestelde van differentiatie, maar beschermt mensen tegen gecontroleerd worden door de groep bij informatietaken. Echter, als het gaat om prestaties kan anonimiteit er juist voor zorgen dat groepsuitkomsten verslechteren – doordat meelifters en andere egoïstische gedragingen niet kunnen worden gestraft.

Hoe zit het dan met morele controle in grote groepen?

Groepen profiteren van het systeem in zoverre dat individuen de regels volgen en doen wat het best is voor de groep – groepen profiteren dus van moreel gedrag. De eerste stap, het identificeren met de groep, kan mensen motiveren om te doen wat goed is voor de groep en kan zo leiden tot meer moreel gedrag. Dit kan soms effectief zijn, vooral wanneer er sterke emotionele banden zijn binnen de groep. In de tweede stap kan de  groep dit gedrag eigenlijk afdwingen, omdat leden verantwoordelijk worden gehouden voor hun daden. Op lange termijn is de tweede stap effectiever in het zorgen voor moreel gedrag. Dit geldt vooral wanneer de groep groter wordt. Uit onderzoek blijkt namelijk dat hoe groter de groep, hoe lager het gevoel van sociale connectie tussen de leden. Grotere groepen zullen dus eerder last hebben van leden die de regels overtreden, en juist daarom is differentiatie van belang in groepen.

Wat zegt eerder onderzoek over deze kwestie?

De centrale hypothese van de auteurs is dat groepen beter presteren wanneer de leden individueel herkenbaar zijn. Zich identificeren met de groep en door de groep geaccepteerd worden is in eerste instantie belangrijk, maar later wordt de differentiatie van het individu de sleutel tot succes in een groep.

Wat zijn de verschillende effecten die groepen hebben op taakprestatie?

Sociale facilitatie houdt in dat mensen harder hun best doen en beter presteren wanneer er anderen aanwezig zijn. Sociale facilitatie wordt gestimuleerd door individuele identificatie/differentiatie, verantwoordelijkheid, en verwachte evaluatie (geldt alleen wanneer men een positieve evaluatie verwacht). Zelfevaluatie speelt geen rol bij sociale facilitatie, slechts de evaluatie door anderen kan positieve effecten uitlokken.

Social loafing is de neiging van mensen om minder moeite te doen wanneer ze zich in een groep bevinden. Deze verminderde moeite leidt tot een verminderd resultaat als groep, doordat de leden van een groep slechter presteren dan zij zouden doen wanneer ze individueel de taak zouden uitvoeren. Dit effect wordt alleen gevonden wanneer leden anoniem zijn, ondergedompeld in de groep. Dit komt doordat de verantwoordelijkheid van de taak dan verdeeld wordt over meer mensen. Wanneer leden (hun prestatie) individueel worden geïdentificeerd, vermindert/verdwijnt dit effect. Ook het gevoel van onmisbaarheid in een groep neemt dit effect van social loafing weg. Mensen werken het hardst wanneer ze geloven dat hun individuele contributies effect hebben op het eindproduct, en wanneer dit eindproduct zowel de groep als het individu ten goede komt.

De verdeling van werk binnen een groep kan ook leiden tot een betere prestatie. Wanneer een geheel proces wordt opgedeeld in kleine taken, wordt ieder lid van een groep gespecialiseerd in één deeltaak. Dit komt de efficiëntie van het proces, alsmede de kwaliteit van het eindproduct ten goede. De voordelen door het verdelen van werk komen niet alleen doordat verschillende mensen met verschillende kwaliteiten ook verschillende dingen doen, maar ook doordat ze deze activiteiten coördineren tot een geïntegreerd systeem. Ook geldt het effect niet alleen voor een fysieke verdeling van het werk, maar presteren groepen ook beter op cognitieve taken wanneer ze het werk verdelen.

Wat is het effect van groepen op een informatieve prestatie?

Het idee achter een beslissing nemen in een groep, is dat iedereen informatie verzamelt en dit met elkaar deelt om tot een goed en volledig besluit te komen. Echter, vaak wordt in onderzoeken gevonden dat groepsleden vooral praten over de informatie die zij allemaal weten, en dat individuele informatie (die dus niet bekend is bij de hele groep) juist niet gedeeld wordt in de discussie en beslissing. Dit effect wordt groter wanneer de groep groter wordt. Doordat niet alle informatie wordt gedeeld zouden groepen dus slechtere beslissingen maken dan individuen. Wanneer een minderheid van de groep het niet eens is met de kwestie – en er dus een meningsverschil is binnen de groep – is de kans wel groter dat de individuele informatie wordt gedeeld. Minder cohesie – of een groter meningsverschil – in een groep komt het beslissingsproces dus ten goede.

Hoe beïnvloeden groepen het proces van brainstormen?

Groepen doen ook vaak aan brainstormen, waarbij inzichten en ideeën worden gedeeld met als doel een creatieve oplossing vinden. Groepen presteren hier beter op wanneer gedifferentieerd wordt tussen individuen. Als dit niet gebeurt, presteren groepen juist slechter dan individuen.

Maakt het uit of iemand graag bij een groep wil horen? Wat is de invloed van conformiteit en groepsdenken?

Tevens kunnen groepen zorgen voor conformiteit in beslissingen. Wanneer men graag wil worden geaccepteerd door een groep, gaat dit lid vaak mee in de denkwijze van de groep – zelfs als die duidelijk foutief is. Dit fenomeen wordt ook wel groepsdenken genoemd. Het geven van een fout antwoord wordt in zulke gevallen als minder erg gezien dan het buiten de groep vallen. Wanneer leden echter anoniem kunnen reageren op een kwestie, komt de individuele mening meer tot uiting waardoor er minder fouten worden gemaakt. Deze bevindingen lijken te contrasteren met het verhaal van social loafing, wat juist tegengegaan werd door anonimiteit weg te nemen. In beide gevallen wordt echter het optimale resultaat bereikt door de persoon zich te laten gedragen als een autonoom, onafhankelijk en verantwoordelijk individu.

Maakt het uit of individuen in een groep verantwoordelijkheid hebben?

Verantwoordelijkheid speelt ook een rol bij groepen. Verantwoording is de verwachting dat iemand zijn overtuigingen, ideeën of acties moet verantwoorden naar anderen. Dit benadrukt voor individuen het autonoom en ethisch handelen, en differentieert op die manier groepsleden van elkaar. De kwaliteit en accuraatheid van de groepsbeslissingen kunnen worden vergroot door individuen verantwoordelijkheid te geven. Door verantwoordelijkheid denken mensen namelijk dieper en beter na over hun taken dan ze anders zouden doen. Echter, soms kan verantwoordelijkheid er ook voor zorgen dat men de vooroordelen van de groep juist versterkt (bijvoorbeeld wanneer de groep een bepaalde uitkomst verwacht, en het lid hier naar gaat handelen).

Uit de literatuur blijken dus zowel voor- als nadelen voor groepen op informatieve taken. De algehele conclusie die wordt ondersteund is dat betere prestatie volgt wanneer leden als individuen worden gezien.

Prosociaal en antisociaal gedrag

Tot nu toe hebben de auteurs beargumenteerd dat taak- en informatieprestatie beide worden gefaciliteerd door differentiatie. Ook stelden ze dat een gebrek aan persoonlijke identificatie kan leiden tot misdragende leden bij een taak die moeite kost, maar juist kan leiden tot betere prestatie op informatietaken. Als het inderdaad zo is dat door publieke identificatie de morele controle van een groep verbeterd, zou een groep moeten leiden tot meer pro-sociaal dan antisociaal gedrag.

Hoe beïnvloeden groepen sociale dilemma’s?

De tragedie van de meent (tragedy of the commons), beschreven door Hardin, is een mooi voorbeeld om te laten zien hoe groepen invloed hebben op sociale dilemma’s. Het beschrijft dat individuen die verantwoordelijk zijn voor een stuk land waar vee op loopt hier duurzaam mee omgaan– ze zorgen dat de dieren de grond niet kapot maken en dat het gras terug blijft groeien. Wanneer dit stuk land echter een gemeenschappelijk goed is, blijven mensen dieren toevoegen aan hun kudde en gebruiken ze het land tot het over geëxploiteerd is. In veel verschillende studies is dit principe aangetoond. Ook is aangetoond dat persoonlijke identificatie en verantwoordelijkheid voor individuele acties deze tragedie kan verminderen. Verantwoordelijkheid verbetert dus pro-sociaal gedrag in sociale dilemma’s: mensen dragen meer bij aan een groep als er een systeem is dat meelifters straft of wanneer ze zich meer identificeren met de groep.

Op welke manier hebben groepen invloed op agressie en bendegedrag?

Een andere opvallende gebeurtenis binnen groepen zijn rellen, hooliganisme, en andere agressieve gedragingen. Deze gebeurtenissen vinden vaak plaats wanneer de individualiteit van de leden verdwijnt en zij ondergedompeld worden in de groep. Door deze verminderde identificatie verliezen mensen vaak het zelfbewustzijn en de persoonlijke verantwoordelijkheid voor hun daden, alsmede het gevoel dat ze beoordeeld worden om hun daden. Differentiatie van individuen is dus hetgeen dat morele controle binnen een groep verzorgt.  

Dus, waar staan we nu wat betreft de prestatie van groepen?

Dit manuscript begon met de stelling dat de bevindingen over groepen twee kanten op ging: groepen kunnen zowel beter als slechter presteren dan individuen. Verschillende geciteerde onderzoeken bevestigen het idee van de auteurs dat er twee stappen zijn in groepsvorming. De eerste stap draagt bij aan de cohesie en identiteit van de groep – wat ervoor kan zorgen dat de egoïstische neigingen van individuele leden verdwijnen door meer moreel gedrag. De tweede stap – differentiatie – waarbij leden identificeerbaar worden, en het gevoel hebben verantwoordelijk en onmisbaar te zijn, draagt volgens verschillend onderzoek bij aan een betere groepsprestatie. Ook blijkt dat groepen die een duidelijke taak hebben, meer differentiëren. Dit steunt het idee dat differentiatie het groepsproces faciliteert.

Wat zijn de implicaties en conclusies van dit manuscript?

We gaan er vanuit dat groepen die complexe sociale systemen hanteren een voordeel hebben over groepen die dit niet hebben. Deze systemen bestaan uit de rollen van de individuen, en daarom is het voor de individuen adaptief geweest om zich in deze rollen te kunnen schikken en deel uit te kunnen maken van een groep. Uit deze beoordeling blijkt dat deze voordelen van sociale systemen vooral afhangen van gedifferentieerde rollen binnen een groep en van de daarbij behorende aspecten van verantwoordelijkheid, autonoom denken, en een systeem waarin gebrek aan inzet wordt gestraft.

De huidige analyse biedt een oplossing voor de schijnende tegenstelling in de literatuur over het presteren van groepen: de differentiatie van individuen is een van de belangrijkste factoren die verantwoordelijk is voor de mogelijke positieve uitkomsten. Negatieve uitkomsten van groepen kunnen namelijk worden verklaard door een gebrek aan differentiatie: veel van de slechte effecten van groepen komen voort uit het onderdompelen van individuele identiteiten in een groep. De verantwoordelijkheid gaat dan verloren, waardoor extreme en antisociale gedragingen mogelijk worden. Een gezamenlijk groepsgevoel en gedeelde identiteit kan nuttig zijn, maar de kern tot succes ligt bij differentiatie. 

Wat voor een reactie kwamen er op het artikel?

Verschillende onderzoekers hebben gereageerd op het artikel van Baumeister, Ainsworth en Vohs, zoals zij ook vroegen in de introductie van het kernartikel. Hieronder volgt een korte samenvatting van de verschillende reacties en de respons van Baumeister en collega’s op deze reacties.

Wat bedoelen Baumeister et al. met het optimale functioneren van een groep?

Het kernartikel stelt dat een systeem ervoor kan zorgen dat leden van een groep betere resultaten behalen dan hetzelfde aantal individuen die samenwerken zonder systeem. Smaldino stelde de vraag: “wat betekent betere resultaten?”. Optimale groepsuitkomsten zijn volgens de auteurs de uitkomsten die ervoor zorgen dat een groep effectief kan concurreren met andere groepen en gestelde groepsdoelen kan behalen.

Belzung et al. stellen dat deze definitie, waarbij gekeken wordt naar betere uitkomsten door een systeem, niet bij iedere groep past. Baumeister et al. bevestigen dit: door de focus op werkgroepen (die met een duidelijke functie samenwerken) kan het inderdaad zo zijn dat niet alle groepen passen bij de definitie die Baumeister et al. aanhangen in hun onderzoek. Zelfs wanneer de groepen wel passen bij het begrip dat zij hanteren, kunnen de voordelen van het systeem per groep verschillend zijn.

Ten slotte voegen Nijstad en de Dreu nog een belangrijk punt toe aan de analyse tot nu toe: differentiatie van individuen kan bij sommige taken veel behulpzamer zijn dan bij andere taken. Niet alleen per groep, maar dus ook per taak kan de effectiviteit van het systeem verschillen.

Wat bedoelen Baumeister et al. met de differentiatie van individuen?

Het oorspronkelijke artikel stelt dat de differentiatie van individuen zorgt voor optimale groepsuitkomsten. Deze differentiatie vindt plaats wanneer groepsleden hun verschillende vaardigheden, kennis, of meningen bijdragen aan een groepstaak. Deze bijdragen zijn uniek ten opzichte van de bijdragen van andere groepsleden. In prestatietaken of morele taken kan deze differentiatie zorgen voor meer persoonlijke verantwoordelijkheid, en daarbij de moeite die individuen doen vergroten. Bij informationele taken kunnen individuen door deze differentiatie juist zorgen voor een open discussie, waarbij ze niet bezwijken onder groepsdruk.

Verschillende onderzoekers stelden dat de definitie van Baumeister et al. twee conceptueel verschillende ideeën bevatte – namelijk die van het individu en de groep. Ondanks dat deze verschillen mogelijk in andere situaties relevant zijn, hebben Baumeister et al. juist naar deze samenvoeging gezocht. Zij stellen namelijk dat de differentiatie niet per se uit een individu voortkomt, maar eerder uit een sociaal systeem. Mensen worden niet verschillend omdat ze dat zo graag willen, maar juist omdat deze gedifferentieerde individuen zorgen dat groepen beter werken.

Als differentiatie van individuen betekent dat mensen verschillende vaardigheden en meningen bijdragen, betekent dit dan dat differentiatie onverenigbaar is met groepsidentificatie?

De commentaren op het artikel zorgden voor verschillende interpretaties van de relatie tussen stap 1 en 2 van het model. Deze stappen zijn niet als tegenstrijdig bedoeld, maar juist als complementair. Differentiatie van individuen biedt vooral voordelen wanneer een persoon zich met de groep identificeert. Dit inzicht versterkt het belang van volgorde in het model dat Baumeister et al. voorstellen: als groepsidentificatie niet komt voordat individuen zich gaan differentiëren, kunnen problemen door egoïstisch gedrag van groepsleden makkelijker voorkomen.

Wat zijn verdere connecties met bestaande theorie?

De reacties boden verschillende mogelijkheden om het huidige werk te verbinden aan dat van andere theoretici en om tevens verdere potentiële uitbreidingen te belichten. Zo kwam Blanton met de connectie tussen het artikel en de Deviance Regulation Theory (DRT). Deze theorie heeft twee hoofddoelen: 1) sociale orde vergroten (zorgen dat mensen zich houden aan bepaalde gedragscodes); en 2) sociale complexiteit verbeteren (groepen profiteren van diversiteit in gedachten). Deze twee doelen komen veelal overeen met de twee stappen die in het artikel worden besproken. De DRT richt zich op hoe groepen beloningen en straffen gebruiken om bepaald gedrag af te dwingen. Volgens de theorie kunnen groepen sociale orde bevorderen door straffen uit te delen aan leden die hiervan afwijken, en sociale complexiteit vergroten door leden te belonen die uitblinken.

Behalve deze theorie kunnen ook verschillen in rang binnen een groep en subgroepen binnen een groep de groepsprocessen ten goede komen, omdat deze verschillen binnen groepen kunnen helpen om complexe acties te coördineren.

Verdere overeenkomsten en kansen voor vervolgonderzoek

Verschillende commentaren hebben aspecten belicht die de theorie koppelen aan andere (onderzoeks)velden en empirisch testbare vragen. Zo stellen bijvoorbeeld Kruger et al. en McDermott dat het belangrijk is om te overwegen hoe gespecialiseerd rollen precies zouden moeten zijn om het maximale uit een groep te halen qua functioneren en prestatie.

Ook stelde Brown dat veel van de bevindingen in het oorspronkelijke artikel gingen om zogenoemde WEIRD situaties. WEIRD staat voor Western, educated, industrialized, rich en democratic, en als Westers-georiënteerd kunnen worden gezien. Hij stelde dat depersonalisatie in andere culturen (die minder WEIRD zijn) misschien wel kon leiden tot positieve groepsuitkomsten.

Nog andere vragen belichten het idee van grenzen: onder welke omstandigheden zal een groep juist niet presteren van een differentiatie van individuen? En hoe kan bijvoorbeeld een agent-based simulatie gebruikt worden om de theorie te testen? Het onderzoek van Baumeister et al. was voornamelijk descriptief en niet prescriptief. Voor al deze suggesties dient dus verder onderzoek gedaan te worden.

Wat is de uiteindelijke conclusie die we uit het artikel en de commentaren kunnen trekken?

Onze theorie had tot doel één van de eeuwige vragen in de sociale psychologie aan te pakken: Welke factoren leiden tot effectief functioneren in een groep? Hierin wordt geconcludeerd dat een belangrijke moderator van de groepsuitkomsten de differentiatie van individuen is. De auteurs zijn optimistisch dat hun theorie continu zal worden herzien op een manier die bijdraagt tot het integreren van de literatuur over groepen en ook nieuw empirisch onderzoek genereert. Het aantal doordachte reacties op het kernartikel heeft al bewezen dat dit kan gebeuren.

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Artikelsamenvatting bij Becoming a group: Value convergence and emergent work group identities van Meeussen e.a. - 2014

Artikelsamenvatting bij Becoming a group: Value convergence and emergent work group identities van Meeussen e.a. - 2014

Mensen werken in groepen om gezamenlijke doelen te bereiken. Uit eerder onderzoek blijkt dat wanneer mensen zich identificeren met deze zogenaamde werkgroepen, dit kan leiden tot verschillende positieve uitkomsten zoals betere werktevredenheid, meer bereidheid om zich in te zetten voor gezamenlijke doelen, en zelfs een verhoogde individuele en groepsproductiviteit. Het huidige onderzoek gaat kijken naar hoe de identiteiten van werkgroepen ontstaan in werkelijke situaties, waarbij de focus wordt gelegd op prestatiewaarden.

Voortbordurend op onderzoek naar sociale invloeden in groepen en recentelijke bevindingen over de formatie van sociale identiteit, beargumenteren de onderzoekers dat prestatiewaarden van groepsleden afhankelijk zijn van de sociale invloeden binnen een groep. Wanneer groepsleden samenwerken aan een project of taak, zullen zij elkaars waarden beïnvloeden op zo’n manier dat individuele waarden op een gegeven moment samenvoegen tot groepswaarden. Het idee is dat dit proces van het samenvoegen van waarden ervoor kan zorgen dat een gezamenlijke groepsidentiteit wordt gecreëerd, welke de groepsidentificatie en –prestatie ten goede komt.

Hoe ontstaat een groepsidentiteit?

Volgens de onderzoekers ontstaat een gezamenlijke identiteit door continue interacties, omdat groepsleden hun persoonlijke waarden naar de groep communiceren. Mensen kunnen dan een groep worden door consensus, ze komen dan samen tot een begrip van wie ze zijn en waar ze als groep voor staan. Op deze manier is een gezamenlijke groepsidentiteit meer dan alleen de som van de individuen. Groepsleden zullen hun persoonlijke waarden zo coördineren dat duidelijk wordt wie de groep is en waar de groep voor staat, en kunnen deze gestelde normen en waarden behalve ontwikkelen ook leren aan nieuwe leden van de groep. De huidige studie beoogt het opkomen van een gemeenschappelijke werkgroepidentiteit door middel van het samenvoegen van waarden tussen de leden van de groep te onderzoeken. 

Hoe kunnen prestatiewaarden samenvoegen?

Om als groep effectief te kunnen functioneren, proberen groepsleden een overeenkomst te vinden wat betreft hun ambities als groep en over hoe zij hun tijd en moeite het best kunnen verdelen. Eén van de doelen van een groepsidentiteit is namelijk om de acties van groepsleden zo te sturen dat ze ervoor zorgen dat het doel van de groep behaald kan worden. Groepsdoelen en waarden zijn dus deel van de identiteit van de groep, en dienen als richtlijnen voor het groepsgedrag.

Dit onderzoek richt zich specifiek op prestatiewaarden, omdat de prestatiedoelen en de uitkomsten hiervan belangrijk zijn voor werkgroepen. Prestatiewaarden zijn de oriëntaties van groepsleden naar competentie en succesvolle prestatie van de groep. Er wordt in dit onderzoek niet gekeken naar passende waarden (de gelijkheid van de persoonlijke waarden van groepsleden), maar naar samenvoegende waarden (het continue proces waarbij naar het groepsdoel toe wordt gewerkt door sociale interactie tussen de groepsleden). Hierbij gaan we uit van de door eerder onderzoek bekende strategie van groepsvorming: groepsleden leren eerst elkaar en het aanvaardbare gedrag binnen de groep kennen (‘forming’ fase). Vervolgens kan een periode van conflict voorkomen wanneer gedragsstandaarden worden geschonden en (opnieuw) onderhandeld worden (‘storming’). Tenslotte zullen zij de daadwerkelijke gedeelde groepsnormen en -waarden ontwikkelen (‘norming’), die de groepsprestatie uiteindelijk mogelijk maken (‘performing’).

Wat wordt er precies verwacht in dit onderzoek?

Allereerst wordt verwacht dat de leden van de werkgroepen elkaars prestatiewaarden beïnvloeden door interactie, zodat deze uiteindelijk gezamenlijke prestatiewaarden worden.

Ten tweede verwachten de onderzoekers dat het samenvoegen van de prestatiewaarden zal bijdragen aan de identificatie met de werkgroep. Dit zal echter pas zo zijn nadat de prestatiewaarden gezamenlijk zijn gevormd. Het idee is dat de identificatie met de groep voortkomt uit een opkomende identiteit, wanneer groepsleden een consensus bereiken over wat belangrijk is in de werkgroep.

Tenslotte wordt ook verwacht dat de opkomende identiteit van de werkgroep positief gerelateerd zal zijn aan de prestatie van de werkgroep. Dit zou komen doordat de identificatie met de werkgroep positief gerelateerd is aan verhoogde productiviteit van de groep, zoals ook uit eerder onderzoek al bleek.

Hoe is dit onderzoek opgezet?

Er is een longitudinaal onderzoek gedaan waarbij 68 werkgroepen van in totaal 295 studenten werden gevolgd tijdens een gezamenlijk project. Deelnemende groepen bestonden uit vier tot zes studenten per groep. De studenten kregen een cijfer voor het project, waarbij 90% afhing van het eindproduct van de groep en slechts 10% van persoonlijke contributies. De deelnemers aan het onderzoek waren tweedejaars psychologiestudenten uit België.

Iedere groep moest gedurende 13 weken twee studies over duurzaamheid ontwikkelen, uitvoeren en rapporteren. Op vier momenten in deze weken werd aan deelnemers gevraagd een vragenlijst in te vullen (83% van de deelnemers deed mee aan alle vier de testmomenten). Hierbij werd gevraagd naar de prestatiewaarden, de identificatie met de groep en de ervaren prestaties van de groep (met betrekking tot het eindproject).

Wat zijn de resultaten van dit onderzoek?

Uit de resultaten blijkt dat groepsleden inderdaad elkaars prestatiewaarden beïnvloeden. Dit gebeurt echter niet gelijk aan het begin, maar pas na de eerste periode van de groepsvorming. In de eerste vier weken van het groepsproject (wanneer literatuuronderzoek werd gedaan en hypotheses werden opgesteld) was er geen sprake van beïnvloeding van prestatiewaarden. De samenvoeging van deze waarden vond pas plaats tussen week 4 en 10, wanneer het verslag moest worden geschreven.

Wat betreft de groepsidentificatie werden twee effecten significant gevonden. Ten eerste was het zo dat hoe meer iemands individuele prestatiewaarden leken op die van de andere groepsleden in week 10, hoe meer iemand zich identificeerde met de werkgroep in week 13. Ook was het zo dat, ongeacht van hun eigen waarden, deelnemers zich meer identificeerden met hun eigen groep wanneer de andere leden van de groep gemiddelde nadruk (in vergelijking met erg laag of erg hoog) legden op het belang van de prestatiewaarden. Deze effecten werden pas belangrijk in week 10 tot 13, dus nadat de samenvoeging van prestatiewaarden had plaatsgevonden in de weken 4 tot 10. Deze bevindingen suggereren dat passende waarden op zichzelf geen toename in groepsidentificatie veroorzaken. Niet de initiële waarden, maar de waarden die door de groep zijn bepaald zorgen voor een grotere identificatie met de groep op een later tijdstip.

Ten slotte werd ook gevonden dat de groepsprestatie in week 13 afhing van de identificatie met de werkgroep in dezelfde week. Een betere groepsprestatie kwam voort uit een hogere identificatie met de werkgroep. Dit effect werd ook gevonden nadat gecorrigeerd was voor eerdere prestaties van de student en de tussentijdse beoordeling van groepsprestatie en –identificatie in week 10.

Wat betekenen deze resultaten nou precies?

Allereerst is het belangrijk om te noemen dat de prestatiewaarden niet alleen varieerden tussen de deelnemers, maar ook tussen de verschillende meetpunten en tussen de verschillende groepen. Dit impliceert dat waarden veranderen door de tijd heen en gedeeld worden binnen groepen. Deze dynamische perceptie verschilt erg van het idee dat waarden binnen een persoon stabiel zijn.

Het idee dat groepsleden beïnvloed worden door andere groepsleden, en hen ook tegelijkertijd beïnvloeden, biedt nieuwe inzichten in de processen van de formatie van groepsidentiteit. Vooral het feit dat deze invloeden pas in werking treden wanneer de eerste periode van groepsformatie voltooid is komt overeen met de verschillende perioden van groepsontwikkeling.

Ten slotte ondersteunt het huidige onderzoek het idee van een opkomende groepsidentiteit. Groepsleden identificeren sterker met hun werkgroep wanneer hun prestatiewaarden vergelijkbaar waren met de prestatiewaarden van andere groepsleden. Dit was echter pas waar na een langdurig proces van het samenvoegen van de prestatiewaarden, waaruit blijkt dat niet de initiële waarde, maar juist de waarde na deze samenloop de opkomende groepsidentiteiten vormt.

Wat zou volgend onderzoek anders kunnen doen?

Een beperking van het huidige onderzoek is dat er alleen is gekeken naar studenten aan een universiteit. Ondanks dat de taak die zij moesten voltooien belangrijk voor hen was, dient verder onderzoek uit te wijzen of deze bevindingen ook gelden in andere omgevingen (zoals op het werk). Ook zouden vervolgstudies idealiter niet uitsluitend gebruik maken van zelfrapportage, maar ook objectieve metingen toevoegen aan het onderzoek. 

Dit onderzoek roept ook nieuwe vragen op. Allereerst zou het namelijk zo kunnen zijn dat verschillende werkgroepen op verschillende manieren hun waarden samenvoegen. Zo kan het bijvoorbeeld dat heterogene groepen hier meer problemen mee ervaren dan homogene groepen. Ook kan het zo zijn dat bepaalde groepsleden meer invloed uitoefenen op anderen, zodat hun waarden de groep meer beïnvloeden dan de waarden van andere groepsleden. Ook is de vraag hoe een groepsidentiteit wordt gevormd of verloopt wanneer de groep over een langere tijdsspanne wordt gevolgd.

Wat zijn de praktische implicaties van de resultaten van dit onderzoek?

Concluderend kan gesteld worden dat organisaties en teamleiders mogelijk verder moeten kijken dan de passende waarden voorafgaand aan groepsidentificatie, aangezien dit niet significant bijdraagt aan de groepsprestaties in dit onderzoek. In plaats daarvan kunnen ze effectiever een groep vormen door de leden uit te nodigen om hun verschillende meningen te delen en zelf te laten bepalen wie ze zijn en waar ze als groep naartoe willen.

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Article summary with Coping with misconduct by fellow ingroup members van Otten & Gordijn - 2014

Article summary with Coping with misconduct by fellow ingroup members van Otten & Gordijn - 2014

In 1999, a 16-year-old Dutch girl named Marianne Vaatstra was found raped and murdered in a meadow. People quickly suggested that the murderer was likely to be found in the refugee centre near the village where the girl was killed. Many people thought that only someone from abroad could commit such a crime. In 2013, the murderer was finally identified and it turned out to be a local farmer. People were shocked that the crime was committed by a member of their community. The mother of the victim and others even refused to believe that it was true and they criticized the DNA methods that were used to solve the crime. Other people complained that the sentences in the Netherlands were not harsh enough to punish the ingroup murderer. When people are confronted with such behaviour, they often ask themselves ‘Was it one of us?’ People often think positively about themselves and the groups they belong to and they are likely to assume that only members of other groups could possibly be responsible. The question is, what happens when people learn that it was actually one of them who did something wrong. A plausible reaction could be finding excuses for the ingroup perpetrator or downplaying the severity of the event. The opposite reaction is also likely. The ingroup perpetrator could be rejected and punished more harshly than perpetrators from outgroups engaging in the same misconduct. It seems that both types of reaction occur. The writers of this article assume that both reactions are driven by the same motive: a striving for a positive social identity. The motive is stable, but the way in which it is strived for will vary as a function of several moderating variables. In this article, the model of Coping with Ingroup Deviance (CID) will be introduced. The writers argue that when relevant moderators are take into account, it can be predicted whether people will show very mild or very harsh reactions when dealing with ingroup deviance.

Categorization and ingroup favouritism

People often categorize their social world into broad categories, like children versus adults or men versus women. An important distinction people make when categorizing the social world is between ingroups (us) and outgroups (them).the Social Identity Theory states that people derive part of their identity from their membership in social groups. Who we are is determined by our nationality, gender and/or professional affiliation. People tend to strive for positive self-regard, but they will also strive for positive evaluations of their group memberships. The positive social identities are often achieved by perceiving the ingroup as comparatively better than other groups. Many studies have found this ingroup favouritism. The positive bias towards ingroups is robust, but it is not unconditional. It has to be responsive to reality constraints. One study found that soccer supporters whose team just lost miserably in competition with another team will not be prone to brag about the superior quality of their team’s soccer performance. They will be likely to try and reduce the damage of their own group’s defeat (for example, due to core player injuries). The responsiveness of ingroup bias to reality constraints is crucial for understanding differences in how people cope with negative ingroup deviance.

People are interested in a positive social identity and it therefore doesn’t seem strange that people tend to be positively biased when confronting an ingroup member who shows unacceptable behaviour. Group members will have to motivation to take the perspective of such an ingroup deviant as well as give the benefit of the doubt if possible. They may therefore downplay the harm that is done or make situational attributions rather than assuming that harm was done intentionally. In this way, the deviant ingroup member does not endanger the positive perception a person has of the ingroup, because the person is able to find excuses for the deviant behaviour. A biased interpretation of the negative event doesn’t really require an extensive effort on the part of the perceiver. Studies have shown that people have an automatic tendency to perceive their own groups positively. This positive default towards the ingroup can spontaneously and unconsciously affect evaluations of the ingroup and the members of the ingroup. If one sees ingroup members as positive at the outset, then such a default may override the potential negative evaluations that might occur when ingroup members violate norms. Some researchers have looked at real instances of intergroup violence between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland. They found out that violence enacted by ingroup members was predominantly attributed to external, situational factors. They also found that violence enacted by outgroup members was mostly attributed to dispositional (personality-related) factors. It seems that ingroup violence can be conceptualized in terms of unusual circumstances, while outgroup violence is a matter of hostile people with bad characters.

Group members can also react very negatively to the misbehaving ingroup member and may respond even more negatively than towards outgroup members performing the same behaviour. by doing this, they can show that the deviant’s behaviour departs strongly from the norms of the group. This is labelled the Black sheep effect.’ One study showed that people, who were portrayed as dislikable and norm-deviant, received more disapproval when categorized as an ingroup rather than outgroup member. Some argue that the Black sheep effect can be seen as a sort of sophisticated ingroup favouritism. By strongly distancing the average group members from the ingroup deviant and by harshly criticizing the deviant’s conduct, group members can act as if the deviant is not typical for the group. According to the Subjective Group Dynamics Model, negative reactions to ingroup deviants are functional because people can retain the perception that the group as a whole is benevolent despite a bad person in the group.

These arguments show that a striving for positive ingroup distinctiveness, as postulated in Social Identity Theory, makes both options equally plausible and functional. The question is under which circumstances ingroup deviants will be viewed more positively or more negatively than outgroup deviants. The writers of this article believe that there are three important classes of moderating variables, that involve characteristics of the misconduct, characteristics of the group member evaluating the misconduct and characteristics of the group member committing the misconduct. This reasoning is also behind the writers’ Coping with Ingroup Deviance (CID) model. In the rest of this article, this model will be used to organize and discuss existing evidence on positively or negatively biased reactions to ingroup perpetrators. The writers will consider evaluations and punishment recommendations and they will refer to evidence on the specific emotions elicited by ingroup deviant behaviour. Different emotions are likely to prompt different behavioural reactions.

Negative ingroup deviance and moderators

The three moderators mentioned above were characteristics of the misconduct, characteristics of the group member and characteristics of the evaluator. All three will be discussed in some detail below.

Characteristics of the misconduct

In one study on the Black sheep effect, the researchers manipulated whether the deviant group member was offending either a general norm (that applies to everyone) or a norm that characterizes the ingroup. The results showed that only the ingroup-defining norm deviation elicited the Black sheep effect. However, later research found that offenses to generic norms can also sometimes elicit strong derogation of ingroup members. The writers think it’s safe to say that both distinguishing group norms and generic humanity norms can produce the Black sheep effect conditions.

Once a person is identified, people try to figure out whether the behaviour was intended or not. The case may be that as long as it isn’t determined whether a norm violation was actually intended, a person can continue to feel good about the ingroup without harsh evaluations of the person engaging in the misconduct. This means that the Black sheep effect may be less likely to occur if intent is ambiguous. Studies on this have been conducted. One study showed that if the intention to do harm was ambiguous, an ingroup perpetrator was rated less negatively than an outgroup perpetrator. When the intent was unambiguous, the pattern reversed: an ingroup perpetrator was viewed more negatively than an outgroup perpetrator. Other studies found that when guilt was certain, feelings of anger and hostility were stronger towards an ingroup perpetrator than an outgroup perpetrator. If guilt was uncertain, the ingroup perpetrator aroused less anger and hostility than the outgroup suspect. Also, as long as guilt was uncertain, the ingroup perpetrator was given the benefit of the doubt with respect to recommended punishment. Many studies reveal that perceivers are attentive to cues to intent ambiguity. If intentions to do harm are not ambiguous, then there is no positive bias towards ingroup deviants. Negative evaluations seem to serve the purpose of distancing most of one’s group from the perpetrator. These processes seem less important if outgroup members are involved. Anger seems to be a relevant mediator of evaluative and behavioural response to ingroup deviants.

Characteristics of the person committing the misconduct

Three types of group members are distinguished. There are newcomers who have just entered the group and who are in the socialization phase of their membership. There are full member who have successfully completed socialization and this gives them more privileges and responsibilities for the group and its goal achievements. There are also marginal members who lost their full member status by not fulfilling group standards. These members may re-socialize and become ingroup members again or they may psychologically exit the group. Researchers have argued that full members are particularly representative of the group and its positive image. These full members are therefore evaluated most strictly when they do wrong and they receive most praise when they engage in normative behaviour. Research has found that evaluations of the deviant ingroup member were more negative when the target was a full rather than new member. Behaviours that were directed towards the target depended on the group member. If the target was a new member, the goal was to get the target to change his/her behaviour. If the target was a full member, people desired to punish this target. These studies show that group members have a strong interest in the maintenance of norms that contribute to the ingroup’s positive identity. They will therefore perceive negatively deviant behaviour by fellow ingroup members as threatening and react accordingly. This will be less true for deviant members who do not possess full membership status.

Research has also looked at the power that ingroup members possess. Researchers say that leaders typically earn their status for being prototypical. Anti-normative behaviour should therefore strongly violate expectations and be evaluated more negatively. However, as power is associated with leadership status, the leader has permission to deviate. Some researchers argued that which of these two phenomena will apply may depend on the phase of leadership the deviant group member is in. These researchers distinguish between past, current and future leaders. In groups with future leaders, the group should give leaders innovation credit and provide them with permission to deviate from what is currently normative. Current leaders that deviate from the norm will be evaluated in terms of their failure to represent group expectations and this will result in more negative appraisals. Past leaders are no longer in the centre of attention and they should therefore elicit weaker negative reactions than current leaders. Research has shown that past leaders expressing opposing attitudes were evaluated less negatively than current leaders and the greatest deviance tolerance occurred for future leaders. Studies have also found that when the leader’s anti-normative behaviour was severe (like sexual harassment) he/she elicited harsher reactions (stronger punishment intentions) than non-leaders performing the same behaviour. But when the severity of anti-normative behaviour was minor (like being late for a meeting), there was a greater leniency for the leader than non-leader. Some studies have shown that, under some conditions, leaders within the group might be treated more leniently than regular group members showing the same negatively deviant behaviour. If the leader’s behaviour is driven by the goal to serve the group’s interest, the group has a double standard. When a leader acts deviantly, it might be considered as justified by the necessities of the situation, but if a non-leader acts this way it might be disapproved upon.

Characteristics of the evaluator

According to research, the strength with which a person identifies with an ingroup should matter. Not ambiguous anti-normative behaviours exhibited by ingroup members should be more threatening as identification with the group increases. As a result of the greater group identification, evaluations of deviants should be harsher. Studies have also found evidence for the idea that the ingroup bias can be seen as sort of default reaction. It operates automatically to protect ingroup positivity. This means that when a person is categorized as an ingroup member, the motivated tendency to view the person with benevolence should be elicited. But if this is the case, how can we then account for the Black sheep effect? Research on this topic has found that derogating deviant ingroup members requires cognitive effort. It is a strategic, deliberate response in situations when the ingroup’s reputation is endangered and positive expectations about ingroup members are challenged.

Conclusion

The writers of this article have shown that people are guided by a positive bias toward the ingroup and its members. The bias can take two forms. One form downsizes the misbehaviour and the other form punishes the member more harshly. The writers offered a model of CID and this can be used as a tool to better predict which form reactions to ingroup deviance will take. The writers provided three groups of moderators, but obviously, there are more moderators of reactions to deviance. For example, the context in which the deviance occurs (in front of an outgroup or ingroup audience) could be relevant. All findings in the current article are consistent with the assumption that people’s coping with ingroup deviance is guided by the motivation to maintain or re-establish the ingroup’s positive regard. The nature and circumstances of the misconduct will determine how it is fulfilled.

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Artikelsamenvatting bij On the social influence of emotions in groups: Interpersonal effects of anger and happiness on conformity versus deviance van Heerdink e.a. - 2013

Artikelsamenvatting bij On the social influence of emotions in groups: Interpersonal effects of anger and happiness on conformity versus deviance van Heerdink e.a. - 2013

Emoties spelen een belangrijke rol binnen het groepsleven. Veel gebeurtenissen die binnen of buiten groepen plaatsvinden kunnen bepaalde emoties oproepen bij groepsleden doordat ze individuele of groepsgebaseerde belangen betreffen. Emoties die in een groepscontext worden opgeroepen blijven vaak niet privé. Meestal komen ze, bewust of onbewust, tot uitdrukking in gezichtsuitdrukkingen, lichaamshouding, stemtoon, etc.. Wanneer een groepslid dus bepaalde emoties opwekt bij andere groepsleden, kan die expressie van emotie hem iets vertellen over hoe de anderen zich voelen met betrekking tot de situatie. Op deze manier beïnvloeden de groepsleden elkaar continu. Helaas heeft de wetenschap nog niet goed gekeken naar hoe het gedrag van een individu wordt beïnvloed door de emotionele expressies van andere groepsleden. In dit onderzoek wil men kijken wat het effect is van de emotionele expressie van de meerderheid op de neiging van de individu om door te gaan met het deviante gedrag of om zich te conformeren aan de meerderheid. Hierbij focust men op twee emoties, te weten blijdschap en boosheid.

Wat is het sociaal-functioneel perspectief?

Volgens het sociaal-functioneel perspectief hebben emoties bepaalde functies in groepen, en ook tussen groepen. Geuite emoties beïnvloeden het gedrag van andere individuen of groepen via affectieve (bijvoorbeeld emotionele besmetting) of inferentiële processen. Aan de hand van inferentiële processen kunnen individuen uit de emotionele expressies van anderen informatie verkrijgen over de motieven en intenties van die anderen.

Wat is de verhouding tussen deviantie en groepsdoelen?

Deviantie wordt gedefinieerd als elk gedrag of expressie van een idee of mening die bewust of onbewust afwijkt van de gedragingen en meningen van de meerderheid. Er zijn een aantal interessante tegenstellingen met betrekking tot deviantie en groepen:

  • Deviantie gebeurt soms bewust, soms onbewust. Onbewuste deviantie vindt al gauw plaats, omdat de voorkeuren van een individu niet altijd te hoeven overeenkomen met die van de groep. Daarbij vinden sommige individuen het prettig om anders te zijn dan de rest en zijn ze bewust deviant zonder de groep volledig te verlaten.

  • Deviantie wordt soms geaccepteerd, soms afgewezen. Deviantie wordt zeer vaak door de groep afgewezen, wat kan leiden tot bijvoorbeeld pesten en fysieke uitsluiting. Soms probeert men om de deviante individu te hersocialiseren.

  • Deviantie is soms nadelig voor het bereiken van de groepsdoelen, en soms juist vereist. In sommige situaties is deviantie zelfs nodig (denk aan groepsdoelen die creativiteit vereisen), terwijl het in andere situaties het bereiken van de groepsdoelen in de weg staat (denk aan het verlangzamen van de besluitvorming).

Om effectief om te kunnen gaan met deviantie moet de groep in staat zijn om deviantie te reguleren. Het idee hier is dat de uitingen van blijdschap of boosheid van de groep een sociale functie kunnen vervullen, doordat blijdschap de deviantie kan aanmoedigen terwijl boosheid mogelijk kan leiden tot de conformiteit van het deviante individu.

Wat is de relatie tussen blijdschap en boosheid?

De verwachting is dat deviante individuen de emotionele expressie van de meerderheid over het gedrag van het individu gebruiken om informatie af te leiden over hun positie in de groep, welke het individu vervolgens kan aanmoedigen om zijn gedrag te veranderen. Zo kan bijvoorbeeld boosheid en blijdschap aan een deviant groepslid worden geuit, en deze kan daaruit informatie afleiden over zijn inclusionary status. Met betrekking tot de expressies van boosheid en blijheid van de meerderheid aan het deviant groepslid worden twee verwachtingen geuit:

  • Wanneer de meerderheid met blijdschap reageert op het deviante gedrag van het individu, zal de individu zich aangemoedigd voelen en het gevoel hebben een veilige positie te hebben binnen de groep. Dit is gebaseerd op verschillende onderzoeksresultaten. Zo wordt blijdschap vaak geassocieerd met doelcongruentie, veiligheid en goede sociale relaties.

  • Wanneer de meerderheid met boosheid reageert op het deviante gedrag van het individu, zal de individu zich afgewezen voelen door de groep. Dit is gebaseerd op onderzoek dat laat zien dat boosheid vaak gerelateerd is aan pogingen om iemands gedrag te veranderen, sociale afstand, onveiligheid en een onzekere positie in de groep.

Wat is de rol van conformiteit?

De reactie van de meerderheid kan de individu aanmoedigen om ofwel deviant te blijven, of om te conformeren. Door te conformeren kan de individu weer het gevoel krijgen bij de groep te horen. Conformiteit wordt gedefinieerd als de handeling van het veranderen van het deviante gedrag op zo’n manier dat het meer in overeenstemming komt met de groepsnorm. Conformiteit betreft een beweging in de richting van de groepsnorm. Het geeft de individu een kans om te laten zien dat hij betrokken is bij de identiteit van de groep, en de groepsleden zullen niet langer een bedreiging voor die identiteit ervaren. Conformiteit kan op die manier worden gezien als een gedragsstrategie om acceptatie van de groep te verwerven. Uit onderzoek kan worden afgeleid dat conformiteit plaatsvindt wanneer een individu zich afgewezen voelt, gemotiveerd is om acceptatie te zoeken in een bepaalde groep, en wanneer conformiteit tot acceptatie zal leiden omdat het zowel gezien als gewaardeerd wordt door de groep.

Wat voor theorie is hierover ontstaan?

Het theoretische model in dit onderzoek begint met de eerder genoemde hypothese (zie blijdschap en boosheid). Vervolgens beïnvloedt deze subjectieve interpretatie van de emotionele expressie van de groep het gedrag van het individu. Wanneer de groep met blijdschap reageert zal dit de individu niet aanmoedigen om zijn gedrag te veranderen of voor meer deviant gedrag zorgen. Wanneer de groep met boosheid reageert kan dat de individu motiveren om zijn sense of belonging te herstellen en zich te conformeren. Of een deviant individu zich conformeert of niet hangt af van de mate waarin a) de deviante persoon is gemotiveerd om zijn acceptatie terug te winnen, en b) conformiteit dat kan bewerkstelligen of niet. Dit is in vijf studies onderzocht.

Studie 1

In de eerste studie werd de relatie tussen de emoties van de meerderheid en de gevoelende acceptatie of afwijzing van het deviante individu onderzocht. Uit de resultaten blijkt dat het deviante individu zich minder geaccepteerd (meer afgewezen) voelt wanneer de groepsmeerderheid boosheid uit. Ook voelt het deviante individu zich meer geaccepteerd (minder afgewezen) wanneer de groepsmeerderheid blijheid uit. Niet alle negatieve emotionele reacties leiden tot gevoelens van afwijzing, want er blijkt ook dat wanneer de groepsmeerderheid teleurgesteld in plaats van boos reageert, het deviante individu zich niet meer afgewezen voelt.

Studie 2

In de tweede studie werd bekeken of de emoties die door de groepsmeerderheid worden geuit de keuze tussen conformeren en het verlaten van de groep beïnvloeden. De hypothese is dat deze keuze afhankelijk is van de beschikbaarheid van alternatieve groepen om zich bij aan te sluiten. Als er alternatieven beschikbaar zijn, is de kans op het verlaten van de groep hoger voor de individuen die een boze reactie hebben gekregen (en zich meer afgewezen voelen) dan voor de individuen die een blijde reactie hebben gekregen (en zich meer geaccepteerd voelen). Als er geen alternatieve groepen beschikbaar zijn, zullen de individuen bij de groep blijven, ongeacht of zij zich afgewezen voelen of niet. De hypothesen worden in dit onderzoek bevestigd. Opvallend is dat na een blijde reactie, de deviante individuen zich vaak alsnog gingen conformeren. Dit zou kunnen betekenen dat de blijde reactie van de groepsmeerderheid leidt tot een verhoogd verlangen om in de groep te blijven, in plaats van een verlangen om acceptatie terug te winnen.

Studie 3

In de derde studie is bekeken in welke situaties de emotionele expressies van de meerderheid er toe leiden dat deviante individuen zich conformeren als gevolg van subjectieve gevoelens van acceptatie of afwijzing. In coöperatieve settings is gecoördineerde actie nodig om de groepsdoelen te bereiken, en deviantie kan het bereiken van dat doel in de weg staan. Dus met name in coöperatieve settings kan een individu bewijzen dat hij een goed groepslid is door zich te conformeren. De hypothese is dat gevoelens van afwijking leiden tot conformering wanneer het individu de situatie als coöperatief beschouwd, maar niet wanneer deze de situatie als competitief beschouwd. Deze hypothese wordt bevestigd. In situaties die als meer coöperatief worden beschouwd, wordt meer druk ervaren om te conformeren wanneer men meer boosheid en minder blijdschap ervaart. Deze relatie wordt gemedieerd door gevoelens van afwijking en wordt niet gevonden in competitieve situaties.

Studie 4

In de vierde studie werd onderzocht of boosheid, wanneer geuit in een coöperatieve setting, kan leiden tot conformiteit door het opwekken van gevoelens van afwijzing. Er werd een experiment uitgevoerd waarin een groep van drie participanten een probleem moesten oplossen. Twee van de leden kregen instructies om met blijheid of boosheid te reageren op een idee van de derde participant. Er werd ook gebruik gemaakt van een non-emotionele conditie, waarbij de participanten de instructies kregen om geen emotie uit te drukken. Conformiteit werd geoperationaliseerd als de relatieve invloed van de derde participant (wanneer geconfronteerd met een blijde of boze meerderheid) op de uitkomst van de groepstaak. De hypothese is dat wanneer het individu wordt geconfronteerd met een boze meerderheid hij zich afgewezen zal voelen, en zich zal conformeren. De invloed van de twee boze groepsleden zou dan relatief hoog moeten zijn vergeleken met de relatieve invloed van het individu. De deviante individuen die te maken hebben met een boze meerderheid hebben dus relatief minder invloed in hun groep dan de deviante individuen die te maken hebben met een blijde meerderheid of de deviante individuen in de non-emotionele conditie.

Deze verwachting werd door het onderzoek bevestigd. Er moet vermeld worden dat wanneer de meerderheid met blijdschap reageerde, de resultaten gemengd waren. Dit zou kunnen komen doordat ze in de non-emotionele setting niet in staat waren hun blijdschap te verbergen, waardoor de deviante individuen alsnog blijdschap ervoeren. Dit wijst op de moeilijkheid van het hebben van een non-emotionele categorie in een naturalistische setting. Met betrekking tot de relatieve invloed wordt de conformiteitinterpretatie bevestigd. Hier kan echter over worden opgemerkt dat de deviante individuen mogelijk gebruik hebben gemaakt van een passieve strategie. Omdat de deviante individuen zich niet fysiek konden terugtrekken uit de situatie hebben zij zich geconformeerd. Dit wordt conformiteit door omissie genoemd.

Studie 5

In de laatste studie werd een experiment uitgevoerd waarin maximale experimentele controle mogelijk was en waarin conformiteit direct kon worden gemeten. Ook werd gecontroleerd voor de invloed van de prototypischheid van het individu. Prototypischheid verwijst naar de mate waarin een lid kenmerken van groepslidmaatschap heeft. Prototypische groepsleden hebben vaak een centrale positie in de groep en zijn zekerder van hun positie. Niet-prototypische groepsleden bevinden zich meer aan de buitenkant van de groep en zijn drukker met het beheren van de groepsgrenzen en het behouden van hun positie. De verwachting is dat periferische groepsleden zich meer conformeren bij een boze meerderheidsreactie (als er geen alternatieve groepen beschikbaar zijn), omdat zij zich meer bezig houden met het verkrijgen van acceptatie van de groep. Prototypische leden worden minder beïnvloedt door de mening van de meerderheid, omdat ze al een stabiele positie hebben. Deze verwachtingen worden in het onderzoek bevestigd. Ook bleek dat de conformiteit stabiel was over tijd, en dat na een aantal weken de individuen zich nog altijd conformeren aan de groepsnorm.

Wat voor algemene discussie is hierover ontstaan?

De theorie over de eerder genoemde sociale functies van emoties wordt in dit onderzoek bevestigd. In de literatuur wordt onderscheid gemaakt tussen drie sociale functies van emoties op het groepsniveau:

  • Collectief gedeelde emoties helpen individuen bij het identificeren van de groepsgrenzen en groepsleden.

  • Emoties helpen de individuen bij het definiëren van en onderhandelen over de groepsrollen en groepsstatussen.

  • Collectief emotioneel gedrag helpt groepen bij het oplossen van problemen.

Uit het onderzoek blijkt dat emotionele expressies van de meerderheid gevolgen hebben voor de gepercipieerde status van het deviante individu, wat weer invloed heeft op de groepsgrenzen. Ook wordt bevestigd dat de emoties functioneel werken bij het reguleren van het gedrag van de groepsleden om groepsdoelen te kunnen bereiken. De effectiviteit van boosheid om verandering teweeg te brengen bij deviante groepsleden is afhankelijk van een aantal situationele factoren, waaronder de gepercipieerde competitiviteit van de situatie en de mate waarin een deviant groepslid prototypisch is.

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Article summary with Advantaged group members’ reaction to tokenism by Richard & Wright - 2010 - Exclusive
Article summary with Politics can influence the perception of biracial candidates’ skin tone by Caruso a.o. - 2009

Article summary with Politics can influence the perception of biracial candidates’ skin tone by Caruso a.o. - 2009

The politics play a big role in our lives. Because of this, one decides in a deliberate and responsible manner on which political party or candidate one is going to vote. People vote for someone because of his/her political party, his/her thoughts on important issues and perceived competence. Since 2008 people of the United States also look at racial identity. This is because their president Obama is biracial. This article shows that political partisanship can change people’s visual representations of one’s biracial skin tone. These representations in their own turn have a connection to voting decisions.

People form groups and these groups make people form representations of reality. People view their group positively. Affiliation with a political party is a powerful group membership that shapes the way people interpret the world. Group membership can affect the way you look at the world and how you view ingroup and outgroup members. Also, social judgments and visual perceptions are affected by group membership. An example of this is that people’s expectations about the group to which racially ambiguous faces belong to can influence their perceptions of how dark or light these faces are. The influence on visual perception is stronger when the information is ambiguous. This study suggests that group membership biases the interpretation of somebody’s skin colour and that this is done to see one’s own group positively. Because White is usually associated with good and Black with bad, the researchers think that positive association with a candidate leads people to believe that lighter skin tone fits him/her more and that negative affiliation leads people to believe that darker skin tone fits him/her more.

In this research political partisanship was manipulated by telling a participant that a candidate did or did not support their own political views. This was done with photographs of hypothetical biracial candidates (Study 1). In study 2 and 3 political partisanship was measured by asking participants to report their political ideology. These studies were done with photographs of actual biracial candidates. There were a couple of photographs of the candidate in different poses and for every pose were three pictures of the candidate: the original, a darker version and a lighter version. The participants saw just one picture of every pose and researchers made sure that everybody saw one lighter, one original and one darker photograph. The participants had to rate which photograph was most representative of the political candidate.

The results support the hypothesis. When the candidate supported the participant’s view, the participant was more likely to rate a lightened photograph as most representative of the candidate. When participants thought that the candidate didn’t hold the same views, he or she was more likely to rate the darkened photograph as most representative of the candidate. Also, when the participants thought that the lightened photograph represented the candidate more, they were more likely to vote for him/her.

Study 2 tested if these results would also endure with a familiar political candidate. Pictures of Barack Obama were used. The same results were found: people who affiliated more with Obama were more likely to rate the lightened photograph as more fitting for him than people who didn’t affiliate with Obama. Those people were more likely to rate a darkened photograph as more fitting.

Study 3 researched if the effect of lightness perceptions would persist even when controlling for racial attitudes. The participants were measured on implicit and explicit prejudice. They found that liberals were more likely to rate the lightened photograph of Obama as more representative of him and that conservatives were more likely to rate the darkened photograph as most representative of Obama. The liberals were more likely to vote for him whereas conservatives were more likely to vote for McCain. So prejudicial attitudes did not bias perception of skin tone.

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Article summary with Social categorization and ambiguity by Hugenberg & Bodenhausen - 2004

Article summary with Social categorization and ambiguity by Hugenberg & Bodenhausen - 2004

People argue that human faces have been shaped by selection (Darwin) to serve as a communication medium. One can ‘read’ the internal emotions of another person. The researchers of this study argue that emotional expressions may also influence the social category to which somebody is assigned.

Sometimes people can be easily assigned to certain groups. Usually you recognize in which group a person fits best. Sometimes, however, some stigmatised social identities can be concealed, like homosexuality. Race can also be ambiguous. There are different skin colours, eye colours and hair colour and they are not perfect markers of race. The stereotype of African Americans includes hostility. Somebody with an ambiguous identity (is he black or is he white?) will be more likely to be categorized as an African American when he displays a hostile facial expression than when he displays a happy one. This is what the researchers of the study propose. They also think that the extent to which stereotypes will affect categorization depends on the level of prejudice. People who are high on prejudice will be more likely to activate and apply stereotypic information.

In study 1 participants got to see racially ambiguous faces on the computer and they were asked to categorize each face as either Caucasian or African American. Each face was presented twice, once with an angry expression and once with a happy expression. They also completed some questionnaires to measure their racial attitudes. The results supported the hypothesis: high-prejudiced people were more likely to rate an ambiguous face as African American when this face was angry. The relationship between prejudice and categorization was stronger for angry than for happy faces.

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Article summary with Identity salience and changing performance by Shih a.o. - 1999

Article summary with Identity salience and changing performance by Shih a.o. - 1999

Activating socio-cultural stereotypes can influence the performance of the stereotyped individual. African Americans who were stereotyped to be poor students underperformed relative to white students when they were told before making the test that African-Americans were not good at that test. There are a lot of studies that have examined this effect, yet there are not a lot of studies that look at multiple social identities. Most studies also look at the negative effect and not at the positive effect of unconscious activation of stereotypes. The researchers of this study want to examine if activation of different dimensions of identity can positively influence them. They decided to test Asian-American women.

In the first study, Asian-American women had to take a quantitative test. The researchers thought that when their gender identity was made salient, they would perform less good than normal and that they would perform better when their ethnicity identity was made salient. This was all compared to Asian-American women for whom no particular identity was made salient. This was done by asking the participants questions about their ethnicity or their gender. Women in the control group had to answer questions unrelated to their ethnicity or gender. Data showed that the women in the ethnicity-salient condition answered more answers correctly than the women in other conditions. The data also showed that women in the gender-salient condition answered the least answers correct.

The second study examined whether it was the stereotype associated with an identity and not the identity itself that accounted for these differences. This study looks like the first one, but here the stereotypes were made salient. This study also used Asian-American women as participants and also made female-identity salient and ethnic-identity salient. They found the same results as the first study.

This study shows that somebody’s performance can be affected positively and negatively by implicitly activating an identity. This can be helpful for a lot of things. One of these is making one dimension of identity salient over the other and influence performance. People from stigmatised groups don’t have to feel so negatively anymore about themselves.

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Article summary with Schism in groups by Sani - 2005

Article summary with Schism in groups by Sani - 2005

Throughout the past decades, social psychologists have investigated the processes that lead human groups to achieve and maintain uniformity and a consensually shared reality. But, uniformity is often short-lived and some groups may live in a state of division and conflict. Factions that normally form around contrasting views may create a schism. This means that they may secede from the parent group either to join an already existing group or to create a new group. Schisms are common and they may take place in any type of group. Even groups that in their present time have stability and uniformity may have been affected by a schism at some stage of their development. Many groups that exist were born as a breakaway group, were joined by a faction that had previously detached from another group or have witnessed the secession of a faction from their own group. In the current article, the writer presents a model of schisms in social groups and then tests it by means of a field study.

Research on schisms

Some scientists tried to create a model of schisms in social groups by studying the secession of a faction from the Italian Communist Party (1991) and the succession of the Church of England because of the ordination of women to the priesthood. They found that the effect of perceived identity subversion on schismatic intentions was mediated by both perceived inability to voice dissent and perceived lack of group entitativity (cohesiveness). This model was meant to apply to common-identity groups. This model does have limitations. It doesn’t use the notion of social identification as a central theoretical tool. Also, it doesn’t include any emotional variables. This is a big limitation, because the most noticeable reaction by those who perceive identity subversion is normally one of tension or sadness. It is therefore important to explore the possibility that perceived identify subversion triggers negative emotions that may contribute to the development of schismatic intentions. Research has shown that the same social psychological variables are at the basis of both the decision to support the change and stay in the group and the decision to oppose the change and leave. When testing a model, it is not logic to not include data produced by those who are happy about the change. The use of all the members of the group under investigation should produce less biased findings.

The current model

Many social psychologists agree that a person may experience himself/herself either as a unique individual or as a member of an aggregate. The self may be construed in terms of idiosyncratic characteristics or with reference to a social aggregate. The first form concerns personal identity, the second concerns social identity. Self-categorization theorists have shown that a collection of people who categorize themselves as members of the same group, and who therefore share the same group identity, assume that they should adopt values and behaviours (norms) that are consistent with the nature of the group identity and that there should be common agreement on the content of these norms. As a consequence, group members engage in active discussion and argumentation aimed at reaching agreement on what norms are consistent with the group identity and should therefore be adopted. Members of a faction may accuse the other group members of having transformed the group into something that is radically different from what it used to be and what it is meant to be.

The current model states that the perception of identity subversion has important cognitive and affective consequences. It has a negative effect on group identification. Some members might not see the new-fashioned group as their own group any longer but as something that is different from the group they once loved. To these members, the group which they belonged to has ceased to exist because of the changes imposed by other, more powerful group members. They therefore find it harder to feel part of it and they will also find it hard to derive a sense of pride and honour from being part of it. Another consequence of perceived identity subversion is related to the experience of specific emotions. Research has shown that when group members perceive a specific norm as causing a rupture in the group’s historical continuity and therefore a radical identity change, tend to experience strong negative emotions. They feel disappointed, sadness and uneasiness. The writers therefore predicted that high levels of perceived identity subversion will intensify the experience of both dejection- and agitation-related emotions, in connection with the new norm.

Self-discrepancy theory can help explain the reason why the opponents to the change should experience these emotions. Self-discrepancy theory identifies three types of self-representation: the actual self, the ideal self and the ought self (the attributes people believe they have a duty to possess). A discrepancy between the actual self on the one hand and the ideal or the ought self on the other hand will be experienced as psychologically aversive. The actual-ideal discrepancy leads to dejection-related emotions (sadness) and the actual-ought discrepancy leads to agitation-related emotions (uneasiness). Because of the discomfort, people strive to match their actual self with their other selves. The members who claim that the group identity has been subverted will believe that the essence of the new group is dissonant both with what they wish the group to become (ideal group) and with what the group has the obligation to be (the ought group). People may possess multiple self-discrepancies at a time and they may therefore simultaneously suffer the discomfort associated with different self-discrepancies.

Another consequences of identity subversion is concerned with the perception of group entitativity. This refers to the degree to which a group is subjectively perceived as a singularity. The writers predict that a high degree of perceived identity subversion will lead to lowered perceived group entitativity. The members who hold a strong perception of identity subversion will see the group as deeply divided because of the presence of two incompatible factions. It therefore lacks entitativity.

The writers of this article predict that perceived group entitativity will have a positive effect on group identification. People, of course, want to be part of entitative rather than non-entitative groups. Entitative groups fulfill basic needs related to social identity, like uncertainty reduction and self-esteem. The writers also predict that group identification will reduce schismatic intentions. This is in line with previous findings that when people have a negative group identity they will try to achieve a more positive identity. This is often done by leaving the group to join another group. However, joining another group is seen as a collective strategy, discussed and decided by a faction as a whole, rather than an individual strategy. The writers also predicted that dejection/agitation will tend to increase schismatic intentions. This is because the group is seen as the cause of emotional distress. This is congruent with the finding that people are motivated to approach pleasure and to avoid pain. It is assumed that dejection-related emotions lead to passivity and apathy and agitation-related emotions are at the basis of activity and initiative. It could therefore be argued that, contrary to agitation-related emotions, dejection-related emotions will not have a positive impact on schismatic intentions. The writer believes that in this specific context, such a contention would be unjustified. Joining a schism is seen ultimately as a way of escaping an undesired identity and emotional distress. Members who perceive identity subversion will form a breakaway group or join an already existing group whose identity is consistent with the ought and ideal group in some extent in order to overcome their emotional discomfort.

The model also predicts that both the negative effects of group identification and the positive effects of dejection/agitation on schismatic intentions are moderated by the level of perceived voice held by those members who are against the change. The extended model that the writer proposes can be described as follows. When something changes in the social group, members may believe that the group identity has been denied and this perception will have a positive effect on schismatic intentions. This effect will be mediated by the level of group identification and by the degree of dejection- and agitation-related emotions. Perceived identity subversion will decrease group identification and increase dejection/agitation. Lower levels of group identification and higher levels of dejection/agitation will enhance schismatic intentions. The perception of identity subversion also will decrease perceived group entitativity and these lower levels of perceived entitativity will lower the degree of group identification. The negative impact of group identification and the positive impact of dejection/agitation on schismatic intentions will be moderated by the perceived ability to voice dissent of those who are against the new identity. The writer also tests another hypothesis. It is expected that those who are in favour of women priests not only will not perceive identity subversion, but they will also believe that the ordination of women strengthens the group identity. In previous studies it was found that according to group members who are in favour of change, the change is actually a development that is consonant with the core principles of the group.

The study

The model of the writer was tested by conducting a survey study concerning the Church of England’s division about the issue of women priests. These results were compared with the results from previous studies on this topic. In 1984 the General Synod of the Church of England agreed to bring forward legislation to permit ordination of women to the priesthood. The legislation passed by a two thirds majority in 1992. In 1994 the first 32 women were ordained priests. Since 1994 hundreds of clergymen and thousands of lay people have left the Church of England because of women priests. Many have moved to the Roman Catholic Church, and a small group has either converted to the Orthodox Church or joined small breakaway churches that have formed all around Great Britain.

Questionnaires were sent out to a random sample of 2000 priests in the Church of England. The questionnaire started with a measure of the respondents’ position on the ordination of women. Items measured identity subversion, dejection/agitation, group identification, schismatic intentions, entitativity and voice. The results showed that all the correlations were statistically significant. Perception of identity subversion predicted the degree of group identification, the perceived level of group entitativity and the degree to which respondents experienced dejection- and agitation-related emotions. Perceived group entitativity had a positive effect on group identification. Results also indicated that a decline in group identification and an intensification in dejection and agitation led to greater schismatic intentions. Voice had a significant moderating effect on both the path linking group identification to schismatic intentions and the path linking dejection/agitation to schismatic intentions. The results also indicated that those who favoured women priests were generally in agreement with the proposition that the ordination of women has enhanced the group identity. Those who were against women priests disagreed with this proposition. The opponents to the ordination of women experienced high levels of both dejection-related emotions and agitation-related emotions. The former emotions were experienced more intensely than the latter. The supporters of the ordination of women experienced a low level of both dejection- and agitation-related emotions. Agitation-related emotions were higher than dejection-related emotions.

The current model shows that the first step toward a group schism is the belief that the group identity has been subverted. The belief prompts negative emotions and decreases both group identification and perceived group entitativity. Group entitativity has a positive impact on group identification. Low group identification and high negative emotions increase schismatic intentions. This model also predicts that the negative impact of group identification and the positive impact of negative emotions on schismatic intentions is moderated by the perceived ability to voice dissent (the higher the perceived voice, the weaker the impact). Of course, more research is needed to test the model and to find the limitations of it.

 

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Non-stereotypic association and hiring decisions (2005) - Kawakami, Dovido & Van Kamp - Article

Non-stereotypic association and hiring decisions (2005) - Kawakami, Dovido & Van Kamp - Article

In the last few decennia there has been an increase in the representation of women in the workplace, but disparities in the status of women relative to men persist. Many scholars think that stereotypes have to do with this type of discrimination. Stereotypes are characteristics associated with a particular social group and discrimination is the biased treatment of others based on their group membership. Some scientists have shown that men may be chosen more often than women for supervisory roles in employment contexts, because power and leadership are qualities associated with men and gentility and submissiveness are associated with women. So one way of decreasing sex discrimination may be to reduce stereotypes.

Two basic processes are involved in stereotypes. Stereotype activation involves the increased cognitive accessibility of characteristics associated with a particular group and stereotype application represents the use of stereotypes when responding to a group member. One goal of this study is to examine sex discrimination in an experimental setting and to explore a strategy of reducing the activation of stereotypes. In the past stereotype activation has been described as a bad habit. Recently, extensive training in negating category-trait associations has been used to reduce automatic stereotype activation. Some scientists found that practice is essential to unlearning the stereotype associations. The present study wants to examine whether the training strategy that can reduce stereotype activation would also ameliorate the preference of men over women for managerial positions. Training seems to be a good strategy in reducing stereotype activation, but it’s not clear what the impact of training would be on behavioural responses to group members (discrimination). The training may be effective in reducing the activation of stereotypes, but can people control their evaluations? One research shows that reducing automatic activations may not necessarily reduce a more controlled form of bias. Implicit measures of stereotyping are related to spontaneous responses and are not correlated with deliberative responses because these responses may be different. This means that it’s important to examine the impact of strategies related to the reduction of biases on explicit and implicit processes separately.

Research on mental correction has shown that when people are motivated and able, they may modify their assessments in a direction opposite to the perceived bias. If the participant thinks that the training will bias his/her decision in favour of female job candidates, he/she may try to minimize this influence and be less favourable towards a female than towards a male candidate. So if people correct for the anticipated impact of the training, they may exhibit a level of sex discrimination which is similar to participants in the no-training condition. But, in order for correction to occur, people must first recognize that they have been influenced and then have the mental resources to control their response. If they are not aware of an unwanted influence and/or if they’re not able to adjust their responses because they lack the cognitive capacity, they will not modify their response. The writers of the current article examined whether correction processes could moderate the effects of training on subsequent hiring decision. They questioned participants in a pilot study about their awareness of the potential impact of training and their anticipated reactions. The participants indicated that they were aware that the training could systematically influence their responses and that they believed that the experimenter expected the training to reduce sex biases. According to correction theory, it is therefore possible that participants would modify their responses to adjust for that influence under controlled processing conditions. The writers therefore decided that in the ‘real’ study, the possible influence of correction processes related to non-stereotypic association training would be examined in two ways: disassociating the two tasks and adding a cognitive load manipulation. The writers expected that participants would correct for the effect of the perceived training when they received training and then directly performed the candidate selection task. They also expected correction processes to be reduced when the training was disassociated from the job application task by including a filler task. They thought that if the relationship between the non-stereotypic association training and the candidate selection task was less obvious, participants would be less likely to correct for the training. The writers thought that without the correction processes the non-stereotypic association training would be effective in reducing sex discrimination against women in the candidate selection task.

Mental resources are also needed for correction to occur. In previous studies, researchers showed that when not under cognitive load, participants corrected for the prime and formed less favourable impressions following the positive than the negative prime. In the current research researchers gave some of the participants a secondary task to impede their ability to correct, while they were reviewing the applicants during the job application phase. They thought that participants under cognitive load would be less able to correct. The goal of the present research was to investigate whether non-stereotypic association training would be effective in reducing sex discrimination and to explore the potential moderating role of correction processes that might limit the effectiveness. The writers thought that participants in the training condition would show levels of discrimination equivalent to that of the no-training control group when hiring decision directly followed non-stereotypic training. In this condition and the no-training condition, participants were expected to prefer male over female candidates. But, when the tasks were separated in time by an unrelated intermediate task or when participants were unable to correct because they were impeded by cognitive load, the training was expected to be effective in ameliorating sex discrimination. In these last two conditions, bias against female candidates was expected to be reduced in the latter two conditions and participants were expected to select women and men in the same extent.

The study

In this experiment, the main independent variable, Training, included four levels: no training, non-stereotypic association training, non-stereotypic association training plus filler task and on-stereotypic association training plus probe reaction task. Participants were seated behind a computer and they were presented with a series of photographs of men and women. The participants were told that underneath each photograph there would be two traits, one on the left and one on the right. They had to select the trait that was not culturally associated with the gender category in the photograph and to press the appropriate button on the button box. All participants were presented with the job application task. Participants in the no-training condition performed only the job application task. Participants in the non-stereotypic association training condition first completed the training task and then immediately after that the job application task. Participants in the non-stereotypic association training plus filler task condition, performed an intermediate task before proceeding to the job application task. Participants in the non-stereotypic association training plus probe reaction task condition received a probe task between the training and job application task. This probe task was designed to utilize some of the participants’ cognitive capacity and deplete resources for conscious control during the candidate selection phase.

The results indicated that with practice participants showed improvement in learning new, non-stereotypic associations. However, the selection of male or female candidates for a managerial position showed no difference between non-stereotypic association training and no-training conditions. The writers counterbalanced the sex of the candidate and the specific credentials and given the same documented qualifications, women were recommended for the position less often than men. This shows there is a prevalence of sex discrimination. In the non-stereotypic association training plus filler task condition and the non-stereotypic association training plus probe reaction task condition, participants showed less sex discrimination.

This research shows that researchers interested in interventions to stop/reduce bias should consider the effects of strategies aimed at changing stereotypes on different levels. Strategies aimed at changing the automatic activation of stereotypes will not necessary result in reduced discrimination. When the intervention is obvious, its effectiveness may be compromised. Therefore, the target task need not to come immediately after the first task. Also, when the conditions allow conscious control of responses and deliberation, the effectiveness of the training will not be so great. High cognitive load is needed to stop this conscious control and deliberation. Future research needs to examine ways to stop the stereotype habit under both automatic and controlled processing conditions.

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Article summary by Improving implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes with imagined contact by Vezzali a.o. - 2011

Article summary by Improving implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes with imagined contact by Vezzali a.o. - 2011

Many studies have shown that intergroup contact is a useful tool for improving intergroup relations. But, interventions based on real contact are costly and are difficult to put into practice. Recent research therefore focused on indirect contact forms. In the present article, the effectiveness of an experimental intervention with elementary school children based on imagined contact was examined. This imagined contact rests on the idea that simply imagining a positive contact experience with a member from the outgroup may be sufficient to ameliorate negative attitudes between groups. Studies have shown that imagined contact improves intergroup attitudes, behavioural intentions, enhances projection of positive traits to the outgroup, reduces stereotype threat and increases confidence about successful future intergroup interactions. Evidence also shows that imagined contact exerts its effects through reduced anxiety and improved intergroup attitudes.

In the present study, imagined contact was tested as a strategy to improve explicit and implicit intergroup attitudes in an educational setting. There have not been many studies of this kind. In one of the previous studies, the researchers asked non-disabled children (5 to 10-year old) to imagine a positive interaction with a disabled child. The results indicated that children in the experimental condition (compared to children in the control condition) had more positive attitudes, behavioural intentions and stereotypes of warmth toward disabled children. The effect on behavioural intentions was found only among younger children (5- and 6-year old). Dependent measures were assessed immediately after the imagination task, so the researchers couldn’t evaluate the longevity of the imagined contact effect.

In the current study, the writers carried out an experimental intervention with 5-th graders, by testing the effectiveness of imagined contact on behavioural intentions and implicit prejudice toward immigrants. Examining implicit prejudice is interesting. Explicit attitudes have been associated with more controlled behaviours and implicit attitudes predict a wide range of non-verbal and subtle behaviour. So, holding negative attitudes at an implicit level may have detrimental effects on intergroup relations and prevent the formation and duration of new cross-group friendships. This is important in educational contexts, where children start to socialize with outgroup peers. Explicit attitudes are conscious and can be easily controlled and implicit attitudes are largely unintentional and less influenced by social desirability concerns. Studies have shown that children display implicit ingroup bias at least by age 6. Other studies have shown that explicit prejudice appears in 3 to 4-year-old children and starts to decline at 7-8-years of age. Implicit prejudice has been shown to be relatively stable across children’s development. Examining the factors that can counter the implicit negativity toward outgroups in children is crucial for a better understanding of how to improve intergroup relations. Research has shown that implicit attitudes are shaped by repeated exposure to positive outgroup exemplars. It is likely that imagined contact affects implicit attitudes through exposure to positive outgroup exemplars. However, in that case, exposure to outgroup targets is indirect, because positive exemplars are imagined and not encountered. The writers of the current study wanted to show that children exposed to imagined contact would reveal greater interest for contact with outgroup peers. To further advance the indirect contact research, the writers examined self-disclosure as a mediator of imagined contact. Self-disclosure is the voluntary presentation of intimate and personal information to another person. Research has found that self-disclosure is often reciprocated and leads to mutual attraction. Self-disclosure is also a crucial component of friendships. Fostering self-disclosure toward outgroup members can facilitate the initiation of new friendships across group boundaries. Studies have shown that self-disclosure mediates the effects of direct and extended contact on improved intergroup attitudes. The writers of the current study imagined that contact would enhance the intention to disclose personal information to immigrant children and that this would in turn lead to more favourable intended behaviours toward them. The writers think that imagined contact fosters self-disclosure and that in turn positive outgroup behaviour intentions would arise. The writers also thought that positive intergroup interactions would strengthen the association between outgroup targets and positive concepts and would reduce implicit prejudice.

The study

In this study, Italian 5-th graders (average age 10,5 years) were used. The children were randomly allocated to the experimental or control condition. Children in the experimental condition took part in three intervention sessions. The interventions took place in small groups (5 to 6 children) and were implemented once a week for 3 consecutive weeks. The children were asked to imagine having a pleasant interaction with an unknown immigrant child who had just arrive from a foreign country. The writers varied the context in which the children imagined the contact scenario. Every week the imagined interaction took place in a different setting, with a different child. The first week it took place at school, the second week in the neighbourhood and in the third week it took place at the park. In each sessions, the children were given 15 minutes to write down a detailed description of the imagined encounter. They had to focus on the immigrant’s characteristics, on the games they experienced together and on the things that the participants and outgroup children said in order to become friends. Studies have shown that enhanced elaboration has an empowering effect on imagined contact. The children also engaged in a brief discussion of about 10 minutes with the research assistant about what they had just imagined. One week after the last sessions, participants were given questionnaires containing the dependent measures. This questionnaire tested self-disclosure and ingroup and outgroup behavioural tendencies. They also completed a child version of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Children in the control condition just completed the questionnaire and the Child IAT and did not engage in imagined contact intervention sessions.

The results showed that participants who engaged in the mental simulation of positive contact experiences with members of the outgroup expressed more positive outgroup behavioural intentions and less implicit prejudice than participants in the control condition. The effect of the experimental intervention on outgroup behavioural intentions was mediated by self-disclosure. This research shows that imagined contact can be important as a first step for facilitating future intergroup encounters. Self-disclosure is an important component of friendships and it tends to be reciprocated. Therefore, the development of intention to self-disclose to an outgroup member can start the formation of future cross-group friendships. The writers found that imagined contact improved implicit attitudes. The effects of experimental condition on implicit bias was unmediated. This is consistent with the finding that explicit and implicit attitudes are distinct. Imagining and then discussing an imagined intergroup interaction could have strengthened the mental associations between positive attributes and the outgroup category. Previous studies assessed the effects of imagined contact immediately after the mental simulation task, but this has raised discussions over the long-term effectiveness of the technique. In the current study, the writers measured the criterion variables one week after the last intervention session. This means that the findings offer an important demonstration of the longevity of the imagined contact effects. Future studies could examine longer periods between intervention sessions and data collection or they could vary the number of sessions.

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Article summary with Vicarious group-based rejection by Veldhuis a.o. - 2014

Article summary with Vicarious group-based rejection by Veldhuis a.o. - 2014

Many researchers believe that humiliation is often a driving-force behind social conflicts. Scientists have stressed the role that humiliation plays in international politics and high school shootings. The experience of humiliation is often described as a strong emotional reaction to being ostracized or rejected in the sense of being made to feel small or worthless. Humiliation signals to victims that they are rejected in the sense that they are seen as inferior. Research has shown that rejection by a potential romantic partners conveys a message that a person is perceived to lack sufficient desirable qualities to be a worthy partner and this induces humiliation. Experiences of social rejection can create serious deficits in the satisfaction of social needs, even potential of pathological consequences. In this paper, the interest is in rejection and humiliation in intergroup settings. The question is whether it is possible to feel humiliated by just observing members of one’s ingroup being rejected. In this article, the writers examine the possibility of vicarious group-based rejection and the possibility that vicarious rejection triggers emotional responses that are similar to being rejected oneself.

Powerlessness, anger and humiliation

Powerlessness is central to the experience of humiliation. The victim is forces into passivity. Some have suggested that this loss of power may lead to inertia. This is the tendency toward inaction that suppresses aggressive responses and it should be accompanied with action-inhibiting emotions like fear and shame. But, in line with previously findings on social rejection, the writers believe that humiliation is more likely to be associated with action-oriented emotions, like anger. The writers think that humiliation is associated with feelings of powerlessness and anger.

Vicarious group-based humiliation

Studies have found similarity of personal and group-membership based experiences. Research has shown that being ostracized by a member of an outgroup on the basis of one’s group membership triggers levels of distress equal to those triggered by being ostracized as an individual. Regardless of what the perpetrator represents. The writers know of only one study in which group-based humiliation was empirically examined. The researchers of this study found that feelings of humiliation were associated with powerlessness and with anger. The writers of this current article want to go a step further and they propose that humiliation can also be experience vicariously, that means after just observing the rejection of members of the ingroup rather than being personally rejected as an individual or member of a group. Empathy studies have shown that people may vicariously experience other people’s pain. Vicariously experienced pain activates the same brain regions as directly experienced pain and it triggers associated responses. Research on vicarious social pain is also emerging. Studies have shown that observing ostracism activates relevant brain regions and corresponding feelings in observers. This means that witnessing others being ostracized can make the observer feel ostracized himself. The same results have been found for vicarious embarrassment. However, empathic responses to vicarious rejection depend on emotional closeness to the victim. People closer to the victim will show more empathic responses. The writers expect that similar results will be found when the person’s relationship with the victim is defined by group membership. Some studies have shown that situations that involve members of one’s ingroup but not the person himself/herself can trigger emotional reactions that are similar to those of people who are directly involved.

Study 1

The goal of this study was to test the experimental rejection paradigm for inducing humiliation by examining whether people who are rejected indeed feel humiliated and whether this humiliation is associated with anger and powerlessness. The participants were assigned to one of two treatments: being included or ostracized in a game of Cyberball. In the Cyberball paradigm, the participants believe themselves to be playing a ball-toss game with two or three other players, who are actually computer-programmed confederates. Some of these are programmed to initially include and then exclude the participant. This creates rejection. If the participants are repeatedly excluded, one can speak of ostracism. Previous research with this paradigm has shown that being ostracized in the game leads people to feel angry and sad. In this first study, the writers also included a between-subjects factor (exposure: public vs. private) in order to explore whether the sensation of being publicly exposed enhances humiliation after rejection. In the public condition, webcams were attached to the screen and participants were told that the interaction would be observed by a group of psychology students. This was, of course, not true. After the game, participants were asked to rate on a Likert-scale how they felt during the game. Humiliations, powerlessness, shame, fear, happiness and anger were measured.

The results showed that humiliation was predicted by the ostracism manipulation. Being ostracized triggered stronger feelings of humiliation than being included. Ostracized participants also felt more powerless than included participants. They also experienced more anger. The people in the inclusion condition felt happier than people in the ostracism condition.

Study 2

In this study the research paradigm of Study 1 was used to test the proposition that vicarious group-based rejection can cause feelings of humiliation. The writers included an extra condition in which subjects observed other ingroup members being rejected by members of a salient outgroup. Previous research has shown that even if people are rejected by members of a despised outgroup (like the KKK) they show strong rejection effects. The writers of this article predicted that vicarious group-based humiliation is mainly ingroup-based. This means that it is more strongly triggered when members of an outgroup reject members of the ingroup than when they reject members of an outgroup. The Cyberball paradigm was used with three condition. In the personal rejection condition, the participant himself/herself was ostracized by two members of an outgroup. In the vicarious ingroup rejection condition, participants observed one ingroup member being ostracized by two outgroup members. In the vicarious outgroup rejection condition, participants observed one outgroup member being ostracized by two members of another outgroup. The same dependent measures as in study 1 were taken after the game.

The results show that more humiliation was experienced when participants were ostracized or when members of their ingroup were ostracized than when members of an outgroup were ostracized. Feelings of powerlessness were significantly higher after personal rejection than after rejection of ingroup members or than after rejection of outgroup members. Anger in response to personal rejection was stronger than anger in response to vicarious ingroup rejection or vicarious outgroup rejection. No significant difference was found between vicarious rejection of the ingroup and of the outgroup.

Study 3

In the third study, the number of perpetrators and victims were balanced. In this study, a procedure in which participants were first included and in the next round explicitly rejected, or in which they watched others being rejected, was applied. The participants were told specifically that the perpetrators did not consider them worth interacting with. The writers predicted that both personal rejection and observed rejection of ingroup members would trigger higher levels of humiliation, powerlessness and anger than observed rejection of outgroup members or no rejection.

The results yet again showed that participants experienced more humiliation when they were personally rejected or when members of their ingroup were rejected than when members of an outgroup were rejected or when no rejection happened. People also felt more powerless when they personally were rejected or when someone from their ingroup was rejected than participants in the other conditions. Participants also felt angrier when they were rejected or when members of their ingroup were rejected than when no rejection occurred or members of an outgroup were rejected.

These results show that people can experience humiliation vicariously after observing ingroup members (but no outgroup members) being rejected. They also show that humiliation is accompanied by anger and powerlessness.

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Article summary with How you pronounce things matters by Rakic a.o. - 2011

Article summary with How you pronounce things matters by Rakic a.o. - 2011

When you look at a person, different aspects play a role. Individual characteristics and social categories will play a role in this. Another distinction to be made relates to the sensory domain. Psychologists have concentrated on one of many aspects at a time, when they try to understand person perception. The visual domain has obviously played a major role and because of this, some other sensory domains have been left more in the background. However, people we meet are not just static pictures but they talk and they reveal much about themselves with their speech styles and language. The writers of this text investigated whether regional accents result in more negative evaluations of candidates in a job interview independently of their qualifications.

There has been a lot of progress in understanding face perception since Bruce and Young’s face recognition model. This model states that there are identity specific and unspecific aspects of face recognition. Categorical information, like race and gender, can also be extracted during the face-encoding process and these aspects need to be integrated into a comprehensive person perception model. The categorical approach is more common in social psychology. Of course, in this field, the focus of interest is more on social categories the individual belongs to than on the unique individual. Categorical processing appears to be faster than identity processing and it should occur before individualization. Identity recognition and categorization influence each other. Categorizing a person is likely along primary social categories, like gender, age and ethnicity that are almost automatically activated. In social psychology, it is important to understand the different underlying processes that contribute to the activation of one category over the other. The importance of a given category can vary based on the context and the type of information available. The face reveals information about the person, but the voice also plays an important role.

If we want full understanding of person perception, the voice and speech perception need to be integrated with visual person perception. The face is at the centre of the face recognition model, but the model also includes a part called ‘facial speech analysis.’ This opens the door for speech and voice perception. The face and voice are strongly linked. Also, the face and voice contribute to identifying a familiar speaker’s identity. Speech differences also indicate in which social group somebody belongs (gender and age). Some differences are predominantly due to differences in physiology, but others are cultivated, like the use of lower pitch frequencies of American compared to British speakers. You can infer a variety of information from speech, like personality traits and voice attractiveness can influence the ascription of personality traits. It seems that people automatically appear to use voice and speech to infer information about the speaker. Theories of language attitudes distinguish between standard and non-standard varieties of given language. When a language develops, it will undergo a series of changes and among the many varieties within this language, one will be established as the standard one, while others become non-standard. There is social pressure to use standard language, and it acquires superiority on different dimensions that seem to be accepts and used by those speaking that language. Social status is one attribute associated with different language varieties. Using a regional accent or dialect, may indicate lower social status. In one study, American participants perceived British speakers as more intelligent and of higher social status than American speakers. With the use of the Speech Dialect Attitudinal Scale (SDAS), studies have found that dialect speakers were perceived as having lower socio-intellectual status and minor dynamic qualities compared to standard language speakers. This also goes for regional accents. Accents lead to the perception of speaker group membership, which in turn provokes a judgment of group status and of speaker status.

There is pressure to use standard language, but therefore it seems surprising that non-standard dialects and languages persist. One reason they do persist, is because they are an essential part of one’s (ethnic) identity. There are different dynamics between people based on the type language they use. This is explained with the communication accommodation theory. Different speech strategies can be context-based. You’ll probably speak differently to a friend than during a job-interview. Independently of those dynamics, each language variety (standard or non-standard) results in an evaluation of the speaker. Studies have shown that in general, standard language speakers are evaluated more positively across different dimensions, but these differences also varied based on the context as well as the country of the studies. One study found that people speaking with a non-standard dialect were attributed higher loyalty and integrity. It is somewhat difficult to compare some studied, because some concentrate on dialects and others on regional accents. Dialects comprise different words and grammar compared to standard language, so some differences found between the negative perceptions of people with a dialect were due to incomprehension. Speech styles seem to be irrelevant for manual labour positions, but they play a more important role for management positions. Accents should be unrelated to job performance, but they are salient cues within communication and influence evaluations of others.

The experiments

Much evidence shows that different factors influence the evaluation of speakers differently and the writers of this text wanted to test whether accent alone would be sufficient for discrimination in the context of a job interview. They used regional accents versus standard German accent. The aim of this article was to test whether hirability, competence and socio-intellectual status judgments of speakers depend on their regional accents, given only auditory information.

Experiment 1

The aim of the first experiment was to test the influence of different regional accents on speaker’s perceived competence, hirability and socio-intellectual status. They writers wanted to know whether there were differences in job interview outcome when regional accents are compared to a standard German accent. They writers thought that people speaking standard German would be judged as having the highest competence as well as having the highest chance to be hired. They also thought that regional accent speakers should be assigned lower socio-intellectual status.

In the first study, six different speakers were used, four of which had different accents (one woman and three men) and also a man and a woman who spoke standard German. A pilot-study revealed that participants were unable to tell if a voice belonged to the same or a different person (from the same gender). Participants were first told that they would hear part of a job interview and would have to imagine they were the employer and judge the speaker based on what they heard during the interview. After that, participants were presented with the job announcement and the job interview. Afterwards, participants had to rate traits of the speakers on a Likert-scale. Then, participants were told that they would hear the speaker again shortly and they needed to concentrate on their speech style and indicate their impression about the personality of each speaker. The last thing they had to do is to provide demographic information about themselves.

The results showed that speakers with a standard German accent were perceived as more competent than regional accent speakers. No difference was found between different regional accents. Standard German speakers were also rated as more hireable than regional accent speakers. Standard German speakers were also assigned higher socio-intellectual status compared to regional accent speakers. Bavarian speakers were assigned high socio-intellectual status while the Berlin and Saxon speakers were not. Accents can activate very complex set of stereotypes linked to a group and perhaps socio-intellectual status was linked with the general knowledge that Bavaria is a strong economic region of Germany.

Experiment 2

This second experiment was conducted to exclude any possible confound of individual voice characteristics on the findings. In this study, six speakers with regional accents were used and they had to record six statements (one each). All of them were also recorded saying the same sentence in standard German. This resulted in 12 statements, half spoken in standard German and half with different regional accents. Each participant had to evaluate one set. So, one participant heard only one version of each speaker. The participants were told to evaluate different speakers as if they were recruiters. After hearing each speaker, the participants evaluated the speaker on a Likert-scale.

The results show that speakers with a standard German accent were rated as more competent than regional accent speakers. Also, speakers with standard German accent would be hired with a higher probability than the same speakers with a regional accent. The same voices were used for standard German and for regional accents, and the writers can thus conclude that the differences they found were due to accent type and not any other voice or speech characteristics.

In experiment 2, no specific position description was provided. So it seems that the outcome can’t not only be generalized to management positions, but also other positions. However, future research should look into jobs which prefer regional accents and see whether the findings reverse in such contexts. These two experiments also don’t yield a hint that gender is used as a cue for competence ascriptions.

 

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Article summary by Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping by Macrae a.o. - 1995

Article summary by Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping by Macrae a.o. - 1995

In our daily-life, we encounter people and objects that are complex and multifaceted. A stimulus is likely to possess multiple attributes, and our evaluations of the stimulus may depend on which of these attributes we focus on when we make decisions. People are probably the most complex stimuli we encounter, probably because they simultaneously belong to multiple social categories (sex, ethnicity and age groups). The competing categorizations can come to dominate our evaluations of others. However, two decades ago there were not many studies that address the question of how targets are categorized when multiple categorizations are available. Researchers have preferred to present participants with written category labels and assess the consequences of these forced categorizations on a range of reactions. However, this doesn’t tell us how perceivers deal with a target when competing categorizations are available. Views of human cognition have characterized the social perceiver as a cognitive miser and they have linked the tendency to engage in social stereotyping to those conditions in which perceivers need to economize mental effort. Stereotypes have to ability to simplify and structure social perceptions. When we encounter multiply categorizable targets, our mental systems form simplified impressions on the basis of a single dominant social category. This way, the economic function of stereotyping will be preserved and the basis for forming expectations and evaluations of the target is also made.

Literature has shown that several factors can be identified that determine which of the possible competing categories will come to dominate social impressions. In this list the relative accessibility or salience of a particular categorization, perceivers’ current processing objectives and perceivers’ levels of prejudice toward particular social groups belong. These factors and some others determine when one category rather than another assumes dominance in mental life.

Inhibitory mechanisms

In our everyday life, we encounter many stimuli that allow multiple constructions. A functional necessity of selectivity in all forms of information processing is needed. Much research has focused on processes through which certain stimuli gain sufficient activation to enter awareness, but it is also important to know the processes through which other stimuli are denied access to awareness or higher cognitive processing. Are these stimuli passively neglected or are they actively inhibited? Models have placed emphasis on the role of inhibitory processes in mental life. There are also excitatory components that enable target items to enter focal attention. Through the active inhibition of distracting mental representations, people are better able to disentangle signal from noise. The writers think that when somebody encounters a target, say a Chinese woman, than both applicable categories (woman and Chinese) are activated in parallel and a competition for mental dominance ensues. There are different factors that can give an activational advantage to a category, like accessibility, goal relevance and category salience. Once a categorization achieves sufficient activation, the question concerns what happens to the loser during the struggle for mental dominance. Older views of selective attention state that the losing category is ignored. Inhibition-based models claim differently. They propose that the losing category is not simply neglected, but actively dampened through a spreading inhibition process. In this article, the extent to which inhibitory mechanisms in selective attention may contribute to the understanding of the process of stereotype activation are explored.

Study 1

This study consisted out of three parts. In the study, participants were either primed with the category woman, Chinese or no prime. They were then asked to check the edit quality of a videotape in which a Chinese woman was reading a book. The writers predicted that the prior priming experience would influence categorizations of the target during the task. In the third part, the accessibility of applicable stereotypes about the target was tested. So after the prime task and the presentation of the videotape, participants were asked to look at a computer screen and they were shown different letter strings in the centre of the screen. They had to indicate, by pressing a key, whether it was a word or a non-word. Half of the words were real words and the other half were non-words. Of the real words, 8 were filler words (countries of the world), 4 were traits that are stereotypic with respect to women, but stereotype irrelevant with respect to Chinese (thoughtful, emotional, romantic and friendly). The other four were traits that are stereotypic with respect to the Chinese, but stereotype-irrelevant with respect to women (considerate, gracious, trustworthy and calm). The writers assumed that the time taken to make a response in the lexical decision task would reflect the relative accessibility of the stereotype under investigation. Participants in the control condition were obviously not primed and they watched a videotape about a wildlife show.

The results show that participants primed with the category woman responded more quickly to traits associated with women than with the Chinese (and vice versa). The results also show an inhibitory mechanism. The dual-process model seems to be right and the not-primed category is actively suppressed (instead of passively ignored).

Study 2

This study looked like the first study. Participants first received a priming task (woman, Chinese or neutral). They then watched a videotape. This time, however, every person saw a short extract from a wildlife show. In the third part of the study, the writers measured the accessibility of the stereotypes associated with the primed and un-primed categories in the same way as in the first study. The dependent measure in this study was the mean time taken by participants to classify the letter combinations as words.

The results showed again that people primed with the category Chinese responded more quickly to traits associated with the Chinese than with women (and vice versa). Response in the Chinese-priming condition to Chinese traits were facilitated. Response times in that condition were significantly faster than in either of the two other conditions. The response times to control traits and woman traits did not differ from one another and this reveals that there is no evidence for the inhibition of the un-primed category. The same results were found in the woman-priming condition. These results show that the effects observed in study 1 were not simply the consequence of participants’ priming experiences. Being primed, but not being shown that target (the Chinese woman on the videotape in study 1, but no Chinese woman in study 2) leads to different results. When people are confronted with a multiply categorizable target, the outcome of the categorization process is determined by the interplay of both excitatory and inhibitory attentional processes.

Study 3

There are many factors that may determine the nature of a category dominance effects when these multiple categorizations are available. In study 1 and 2, category selection was driven by participants’ previous priming experiences. There are also other factors that may influence the process of category selection. If you have recently or frequently interacted with Asians, if you’re prejudiced against the group as a whole or if you’re looking for someone to run a Chinese restaurant, the category Chinese is most likely to assume a position of priority in your classification of the target. These things increase the accessibility of the category Chinese in memory and it increases (in that way) the probability that it will be applied when a fitting target is encountered. This third study tried to establish the generality of the effects observed in the first study by manipulating category dominance in a more naturalistic manner.

Participants first had to watch a videotape in which they checked the edit quality of a short tape. The tape showed a Chinese woman either eating noodles from a bowl with a pair of chopsticks or putting on makeup by a mirror. The writers thought that the stereotypic congruence would influence the inhibitory dynamics. The chopsticks would prime Chinese and inhibit woman and the makeup tape would prime woman and inhibit Chinese. The participants then received a word-identification task with which the accessibility of applicable stereotypes about the target was tested.

The results showed that people who watched the videotape of the target eating with chopsticks responded more quickly to traits associated with Chinese than with women, and vice versa for the category of woman.

When people see a target, they identify several competing superordinate categories to which the target belongs. Repeated exposure to these categories will result in the process being automatized. The inhibitory mechanisms may also operate in a largely automatic manner in the categorization process. Inhibitory processes gate selective attention and they therefore don’t have to be under the control of a resource-demanding central executive. Inhibitory processes help us select relevant rather than irrelevant objects from a series of stimuli. They may also help us categorize people.

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Article summary with Category cues, positive stereotypes and reviewer recall by Pittinsky a.o. - 2000

Article summary with Category cues, positive stereotypes and reviewer recall by Pittinsky a.o. - 2000

People reduce the complexity of the world by using (group) categorization. This will facilitate the information processing, but this may also result in stereotyping. Stereotypes may have a huge impact when the perceiver doesn’t know the target personally. People have different features and belong to different social categories. A lot of research is dedicated to stereotyping, but not a lot of research focuses on multiple social categories. Researchers want to know why sometimes one category influences perceivers’ views about another person and why sometimes another category influences their views. They also wonder how this may affect the information that is being recalled.

This study wants to research whether subtle cues of a target’s different social categories (gender and ethnics) will make salient different stereotypes about a person and whether this influences reviewer recall during an interview. In this study, participants needed to review the college application materials of an Asian American female. Some participants had her gender category (female) cued, some had her ethnic category (Asian) cued and others had neither category cued. One stereotype about Asian Americans is that they have superior quantitative skills compare to other ethnic groups. A common stereotype about women is that they have inferior quantitative skills compared to men. The researchers hypothesize that participants would recall lower math SAT scores for the applicant if the gender was cued, compared to participants who had the ethic category or neither category cued. They also think that the opposite is true: participants will recall higher math SAT scores for the applicant if the ethnicity was cued.

The researchers got to read some information about the applicant, like the SAT scores and other presentations and afterwards would be put in the experimental condition. During the debriefing all participants said that they really believed they were reviewing an applicant. The results supported the hypothesis: people recalled a lower math SAT score in the gender-cue situation than in the other situations and they recalled a higher math SAT score in the ethnicity-cue situation than in the other situations. One important thing to note is that in every situation, participants recalled lower math SAT scores than had been presented. This is maybe because gender is a more chronically accessible category than ethnicity. If this study would have been done with a male applicant, the recalled scores of the math SAT test would maybe not be much lower than presented.

 

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Article summary with Women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions by Ryan & Haslam - 2005

Article summary with Women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions by Ryan & Haslam - 2005

People know that women are underrepresented in leadership positions. Women are prevented by an invisible barrier to rise into leadership positions. This invisible barrier is called ‘the glass ceiling’. Recent research, however, suggests that women are breaking through the glass ceiling and are more likely than before to get a leading position. Once they have reached this, however, they are monitored closely. Women are also not always evaluated positively in traditional, masculine leadership roles. Further research shows that workers prefer male supervisors and that many men think that a woman in a leadership role is not effective.

To makes things worse, some newspapers report that women have a negative impact on company performance. This ‘research’, however, does not report any statistical analysis. The research also had other flaws. It is an important research though. The researchers of this study (and not of the ‘wrong’ study) think that some of the data shows the truth. Women are maybe working in poor companies. But it may not be the women who ruin a company; it may also be the ‘ruined’ company that decides to hire women in leadership roles when things go bad. So it could be that women receive more precarious leadership roles than men. The writers call this the glass cliff. Research shows that when performances decline, companies are more likely to make changes to their board. So people should not only focus on women leaders themselves, but also focus on the circumstances surrounding their appointment.

This study wants to research whether women are really poor leaders and whether women are appointed in conditions of poor company performance. The researchers decided to look at the year 2003. They looked in what month a women was appointed to be a leader. They also measured the company performance. They found that the higher the percentage of women on a company’s board, the poorer the company’s performance. They also looked at the performance of each month and found that when women were assigned during the first half of the year as a leader (so when the stock markets were down), company performance showed an increase over time. When a woman was appointed as leader in the second half of the year (so when the stock market was up), a decrease in performance could be found. So it seems that women are less likely to be placed in leadership roles during a company downturn.

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Article summary with Attributions to prejudice protecting self-esteem by Major a.o. - 2003

Article summary with Attributions to prejudice protecting self-esteem by Major a.o. - 2003

Are there psychological consequences of perceiving that you have been a target of prejudice or believing that you have been discriminate against because your ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation? Many studies show that being the target of prejudice is associated with reduced well-being. Correlational studies show that people who see themselves as victims of discrimination also have poorer well-being than people who do not. Perceiving yourself as a target of discrimination is associated with depression and lower self-esteem. The provocative hypothesis states that awareness of the possibility of being a target of discrimination may provide the stigmatized with a means of self-esteem protection when they are faced with negative outcomes. The scientists behind this hypothesis state that the availability of prejudice as a plausible external cause of negative outcomes might allow the stigmatized person to discount their own role in producing those outcomes. Crocker and Major also hypothesized that, because prejudice is external to the self, attributing negative outcomes to prejudice should protect self-esteem. This is based on models of emotion that posit that attributing negative vents to causes external to the self protects affect and self-esteem and attributing negative outcomes to causes internal to the self for which the person is responsible leads to negative affect and low self-esteem.

There are some scientists who challenge the attribution to prejudice as an external attribution. They think that because one’s group membership is an aspect of the self, attributions to prejudice have a strong internal component. Some also dispute the hypothesis that attributions to discrimination protect self-esteem. These scientists think that because attributions to discrimination threaten one’s social identity, making such attributions will heighten and not decrease negative affect for members of stigmatized groups. They also say that attributions to discrimination are less damaging for members of high-status groups than for members of low-status groups because discrimination has a different meaning for the high-status groups than for the low-status groups. The conducted experiments by these scientists show that attributions to prejudice contain both an internal and an external component.

The discounting hypothesis does not require that attributions to discrimination are exclusively external. Attributing rejection to discrimination should be less painful than attributing it to internal, stable, global factors such as a lack of ability. It protects self-esteem under some circumstances. Research on this hypothesis showed that attributions to discrimination can protect self-esteem from rejection or failure. There is evidence that the perception of injustice is associated with the emotional response of anger. Anger is also a frequent response to perceiving that you’re being discriminated. There, you might expect people who blame rejection on discrimination to be angrier than people who blame rejection on a lack of ability or a jerk.

One of the goals of this study is to test the discounting hypothesis. The writers of this article believe that judgments of responsibility also play a role in determining when attributions to prejudice will protect self-esteem. Attributions to prejudice should be self-protective. This means that they should shift responsibility for negative events away from the self and toward discrimination. They lead individuals to discount their own responsibility for producing negative events. The writers predict than the more people discount a negative event (blaming it on prejudice more than on themselves) the higher their self-esteem is.

The study

This study tested the key theoretical assumptions of the discounting hypothesis and the self-blame discounting hypothesis. Male and female participants read a vignette in which a professor of the other sex rejected their request to enrol in a course. One third of the participants read that the professor was sexist and that he/she excluded only members of the participant’s gender. This is the so-called prejudice condition. Another third of the participants read that the professor was a jerk and that he/she excluded everyone who tried to admit the class. The last third group read that the professor thought they were stupid and excluded only the participant from the course in the personal rejection condition. Participants were then asked to indicate the extent to which the rejection was due to discrimination, internal causes, external causes and also how much they were to blame for the rejection. The writers also looked ad potential depressed, anxious and hostile emotions and they also examined the impact of rejection condition on the types of emotions. The writers thought that ratings of self-blame would be lower in the prejudice condition compared to the personal rejection condition. They also tested whether attributions to internal causes were lower and attributions to external causes were higher in the prejudice condition compared to the personal rejection condition. They also tested whether discounting would mediate the depressed emotion effect.

The results showed that participants in the prejudice condition rated the rejection as significantly more due to discrimination than did participants in the personal rejection condition. Participants in the personal rejection condition rated the rejection as significantly more due to discrimination than did those in the everyone rejected condition. Women were also more likely to blame the rejection on discrimination than were men. Participants in the prejudice condition were less likely to imagine blaming themselves for the professor’s refusal to let the in the course than were participants in the personal rejection condition. Also, participants in the prejudice condition anticipated attributing the rejection less to internal causes than did those in the personal rejection condition. Participants in the personal rejection and prejudice conditions attributed more to external causes than did participants in the everyone rejected condition. Participants in the personal rejection condition anticipated feeling more depressed than those in the everyone rejection condition. Also, participants in the prejudice condition anticipated feeling less depressed than those in the personal rejection condition. Participants in the prejudice and personal rejection conditions imagined feeling more hostile affect than the other group. Also, participants in the personal rejection condition expected to feel more anxiety than participants in the everyone rejected condition. The ratings in the prejudice conditions fell between these two.

The findings show the complex nature of attributions to discrimination. Being rejected because of prejudice against one’s group implicated the self, but it does not lead to as much self-blame and is not regarded as being due as much to internal causes as is being rejected because of lack of ability. People who were asked to imagine that a prejudiced professor rejected them anticipated feeling less depressed than people who imagined being personally rejected because of assumed intelligence. This self-protective effect of prejudice relative to personal deserving could be found among women and men. Different types of attributions are associated with distinct emotional responses. The discounting hypothesis also received support. This means that the more people blamed rejection on discrimination relative to blaming it on themselves, the less depression they experienced. Self-esteem is protected by blaming rejection on prejudice compared to blaming it on a lack of personal ability. It is not protected by blaming rejection on prejudice compared to blaming it on an indiscriminate jerk who excludes everyone. It makes people angrier to feel like a target of prejudice than to feel like a target of a person who excludes everyone. Self-esteem is only protected by attributing outcomes to prejudice against one’s social group when it serves to protect an even more core component of the self. Members of stigmatized and non-stigmatized groups can feel better about themselves if they attribute a negative outcome to discrimination rather than to a lack of personal deservings.

A limitation of this study was the use of a vignette paradigm rather than a paradigm in which people were actually exposed to prejudice.

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Article summary with Concerns about appearing prejudiced get under the skin: Stress responses to interracial contact in the moment and across time by Trawalter a.o. - 2012

Article summary with Concerns about appearing prejudiced get under the skin: Stress responses to interracial contact in the moment and across time by Trawalter a.o. - 2012

Diversity is a good thing. People can improve their racial attitudes, leadership skills and their thinking about the social world. Still, there are many people who feel uncomfortable with diversity and want to live in a non-diverse area. Some people might even find interracial contact stressful and try to avoid this. However, it is almost impossible to avoid interracial contact. In this study the consequences of White individuals’ concerns about appearing prejudiced are examined.

People are sometimes afraid to show prejudiced behaviour, because they think that they are going to be rejected. It is not that they don’t want to be prejudiced, it’s that they don’t want to be viewed negatively. So interracial prejudice might be really stressful for people who are high in external motivation to respond without prejudice. Sometimes anxious people also react weird towards other groups when they are distressed. They get stressed because they don’t want to react prejudiced, but when they are stressed they may react really prejudiced towards Blacks. This research focuses on how appearing prejudiced creates stress responses to interracial contact and this will focus on external motivation to respond unprejudiced. The researchers think that people high on EM (external motivation) will experience more stress during interracial contact than people low on EM. This will be evident in behaviour and psychological responses. They also think that high-EM individuals will experience more stress over time the more interracial contact they have.

The researchers examined stress by looking at the body posture, facial expressions, blinking, adverted eye gaze and other nonverbal cues. They also measured physiological reactivity. The external motivation to respond unprejudiced was measured with a scale: the Motivation to Respond without Prejudice Scale. Participants had to react with a research assistant and the research assistant could be either white or black. He or she asked the participant some questions. This is the interaction. The whole study was filmed, so researchers could look at the nonverbal behaviour of participants. The hypothesis was supported: the higher people were on EM, the bigger stress responses they showed. They also showed more physiological stress responses.

The second study looked whether these results could be found in natural settings and over a large time period. Researchers decided to study college students, because they have more interracial contact. They did this over a time span of a year and the students needed to keep an online diary in which they had to answer what their mood was, how many hours they have slept, whether they took some caffeine and other things. They also had to list five people they had the most meaningful interactions that day. They also had to provide some information about the interracial partner. They also had to provide some saliva a couple of times. This was to measure their stress levels. These results also supported the hypothesis. Students, who were higher in EM, were more likely to have chronic stress.

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Artikelsamenvatting bij Intergroup contact and intergroup conflict van Hewstone e.a. - 2014 - Exclusive
Article summary by Reduced intergroup conflict and increased outgroup empathy by De Vos a.o. - 2013

Article summary by Reduced intergroup conflict and increased outgroup empathy by De Vos a.o. - 2013

Studies on anger management suggest that anger is a potentially destructive emotion. Anger can harm relationships. Conflicts are best resolved when anger is kept under wraps. But there are also positive studies on anger. An important distinction is made between experienced anger that motivates behaviour and the communication of anger. The first form can motivate destructive behaviour in the angered person, but the latter can de-escalate conflicts by motivating constructive conflict behaviour in the recipient of the communicated anger. The writers of this article argue that the communication of group-based anger reduces tendencies tow3ard intergroup conflict because it stresses the value of maintaining a positive long-term relationship. This positive relational signal increases empathy in the recipients of the communicated anger for those who communicated it. The communication of group-based contempt should undermine any positive effect of group-based anger on intergroup conflict reduction through reducing empathy with the other group. The writers believe that negative effects of communicating group-based anger in intergroup conflict are likely to stem from communicating group-based contempt or a mixture of the emotions. They therefore conducted three experiments. In those experiments, they examined the idea that only communicating pure group-based anger has positive effects in terms of reducing tendencies toward intergroup conflict because of its relational function. They also predicted that this positive effect of communicating pure group-based anger is mediated by increased empathy for the out-group.

Relational function of communicating anger

Emotions have an important social function in everyday life, because they communicate how people feel about others and how they are likely to behave toward them. Group-based emotions are emotions expressed and felt on behalf of one’s group membership. Group-based anger is the most prototypical emotion in intergroup conflict. Anger is an emotion with a negative valence, necessary to signal injustice and it is also approach-oriented, important to engage in dialogue about the perceived injustice. This makes anger different than other negatively valenced emotions like fear and sadness, all of which communicate more avoidance-oriented motivation. Anger is usually associated with destructive responses, but its expression might be beneficial for maintaining and improving relationships. The writers therefore propose a positive relational function of group-based anger in intergroup conflict. This suggests that communicating group-based anger stresses the injustice of the situation while asking the other group to take steps toward reconciliation. The other group will see this communication of group-based anger as a signal that one cares about maintaining a positive intergroup relationship. The writers think that this in turn should encourage the recipient to take the other party’s perspective and feel empathy for them. Past studies have shown positive effects of empathy in reducing intergroup conflict. However, empathy has not been linked to communication of group-based anger. The writers think that anger should reduce conflict through increasing empathy. Prior research has not looked at the relational function of anger, but it focused more on the important but different strategic function of anger expressions. Studies that looked at interpersonal negotiations showed that communication of anger about the other’s behaviour increases this other’s approach behaviour. this enforces cooperation within a competitive setting. In these cases, the communication of anger serves a strategic function. The writers of this text look at the relational function of anger.

Pure anger versus contempt and mixed anger

If the relational function of communicating anger results in a reduction of conflict, then a comparable negative emotion with an opposite relational function should result in quite adverse effects. Contempt is a good candidate for this. This is because anger and contempt represent responses to violations of particular norms. Research shows that contempt communicates the desired exclusion of the other person, which should undermine empathy. People perceive communication of contempt as a signal that the other desires to end the relationship. Communicating anger should therefore have more positive consequences than communicating contempt. Anger and contempt do not necessarily exclude one another. Communication of anger is often combined with contempt in conflict situations. Some scientists have even argued than when anger persists over a longer period of time, it might start to co-exist or completely develop into contempt. The writers believe that if communication of contempt is mixed with anger, the interpretation of the communication is transformed. The relational function of communicating anger should only function effectively when it is communicated free of contempt. This means that the communication of pure group-based anger should have more positive effects than the communication of group-based contempt, or the combination of both group-based emotions. The writers predict that only the communication of pure group-based anger decreases destructive intergroup conflict intentions because it increases empathy for the outgroup.

Experiment 1

The aim of this study was to find support for the relational function of the communication of group-based anger in intergroup conflict. The writers investigated whether the communication of group-based anger would reduce destructive conflict intentions compared with a condition in which the communication of group-based anger was absent. They also tested whether this effect would be explained by increased empathy for the outgroup.

Participants (all Dutch) were assigned to one of two conditions: outgroup communicating anger or a control condition. They read a fictitious newspaper article and answered questions about it. The article outlined a realistic situation in which German students were discriminated against by Dutch students. The majority of the people in the paper indicated having negative attitudes toward German students and some justified their opinion by referring to common stereotypes of Germans as being badly integrated and loners. In the article, the German students reacted to what they considered to be unjust discrimination. The writers manipulated whether they communicated anger or not. The communicated emotion was manipulated in the title of the article, the introductory paragraph and in the final paragraph in which a German student responded on behalf of her group. The writers only manipulated the presence or absence of the anger label in the communication by the outgroup. An anger manipulation check measured to what extent the participants perceived the German students to be angry on a Likert-scale. Destructive conflict intentions were also measured on a Likert-scale. The writers also measured empathy with a scale. Finally, communicated relationship importance was also measured with a Likert-scale.

The results showed that participants reported less destructive conflict intentions when anger had been communicated than in the control condition. Also, participants reported to feel more outgroup empathy after anger had been communicated than in the control condition. The communication of anger reduced destructive conflict intentions and increased empathy. Empathy also predicted destructive conflict intentions beyond the effect of manipulation. Empathy fully mediated the positive effect of pure group-based anger on destructive conflict intentions. The writers also found that participants with a decreased destructive conflict intention communicated increased relationship importance.

Experiment 2

In this experiment, participants (all Dutch) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions within a 2 (group-based anger: absent or present) x 2 (group-based contempt: absent/present) between-subjects design. Like in the first study, participants read a (fictitious) newspaper article and answered questions about it. The article described the current shortage on the Groningen student dorm market. Almost 75% of Dutch students indicated rather having a Dutch than a German roommate, which was justified by referring to typical stereotypes of Germans as being badly integrated and loners. The article continued with the reaction of the German students. In the reaction, the writers manipulated whether they communicated pure anger, pure contempt, mixed anger and contempt or no emotion. This communicated emotion was manipulated in the title of the article, the introductory paragraph and in the final paragraph in which a German student responded on behalf of her group. The empathy was measured, as well as the destructive conflict intentions.

The results of this study replicate those of the first study. They show that the communication of pure group-based anger results in less destructive conflict intentions than its absence. The results also replicated the mediational role of empathy in this effect. No positive effects for the communication of group-based contempt and of mixed anger/contempt was shown. This adds to the reliability of the proposed relational function of communicating group-based anger in the context of intergroup conflict. However, the writers were not yet in the position to make claims about causality with respect to the mediations role of empathy. For this reason, the third experiment was conducted.

Experiment 3

In this experiment, participants (all Dutch) were randomly assigned to one of six conditions within a 2 (communicated emotion: pure anger vs. mixed anger) x 3 (Perspective taking, PT: Dutch students vs. German students vs. control) between-subjects design. In this experiment, participants also read a fictitious newspaper article about Dutch students discriminating German students. The context was that of a future increase in college tuition fees. The article read that the majority of Dutch students expressed the opinion that tuition fees should increase more for German students than for Dutch students. They justified this opinion by referring to common German stereotypes. The manipulation of PT took place prior to reading the article. In the control condition, participants just read that they were going to read an article about a conflict situation between German and Dutch students in Groningen. The participants in the other conditions read that they had to put themselves in the shoes of either the Dutch student or German student and that they had to identify as best as they could with the feelings and reactions to the situation. After reading the article, participants had to answer some questions. They had to indicate their destruction-intentions on a Likert-scale.

The results showed that participants reported weaker destructive conflict intentions when German students had communicated pure group-based anger compared with when they had communicated mixed group-based anger/contempt. In the German students’ perspective taking condition it was also found that communication of pure group-based anger led to less destructive conflict intentions than communication of mixed group-based anger/contempt. In the Dutch students’ perspective conditions, no significant differences in reported destructive conflict intentions were found between communicated pure group-based anger and mixed group-based anger/contempt. Taking the perspective of Dutch students undermined the positive effect of communicating pure group-based anger versus mixed group-based anger/contempt.

Anger is often perceived as an unpleasant and negative subjective state, but these three experiments show that its communication has remarkably positive consequences in the context of intergroup conflict. The expression of group-based anger may have positive consequences for intergroup relations. It seems that anger should not always be kept under wraps. However, more research is needed and boundary conditions need to be found.

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Artikelsamenvatting bij Destined to die but not to wage war: How existential threat can contribute to escalation or de-escalation of violent intergroup conflict van Jonas & Fritsche - 2013

Artikelsamenvatting bij Destined to die but not to wage war: How existential threat can contribute to escalation or de-escalation of violent intergroup conflict van Jonas & Fritsche - 2013

Onderzoek toont aan dat wanneer mensen herinnerd worden aan de dood (bijvoorbeeld door oorlogsrapportage in de media), mensen intoleranter en agressiever worden naar outgroups. Het onderzoek naar terrorisme management laat zien dat dit komt doordat mensen proberen het terrorisme rond hun eigen leven onder controle te krijgen. Zich meer aansluiten bij de ingroup, hun eigen culturele wereldbeelden te beschermen en het zelfvertrouwen te vergroten, kan dienen om mensen te verzekeren van een collectief bestaan en persoonlijke transcendentie van de dood. Echter, deze neigingen kunnen juist leiden tot een escalatie van conflict – wat juist voortbrengt waar men zo bang voor is. In de huidige analyse wordt gesteld dat er enkele omstandigheden zijn waarin het conflict niet uit de hand hoeft te lopen, of zelfs omgekeerd kan worden.

Wat heeft onderzoek naar de terror management theorie (TMT) tot nu toe vastgesteld?

De TMT stelt dat in mensen hun instinct is vastgelegd dat ze willen overleven. Echter, ze zijn zich bewust van hun eigen sterflijkheid en hebben hierdoor continu de mogelijkheid om bang te zijn om te sterven. Volgens de TMT biedt onze eigen cultuur ons bescherming voor deze angst, omdat we onszelf kunnen zien als waardevol deel van een onsterfelijke collectieve entiteit. Specifieker gesteld, volgens de TMT wordt angst voor de dood vermindert door een culturele buffer die bestaat uit twee componenten: 1) een cultureel wereldbeeld – een gedeelde mening van de realiteit die betekenis, orde en stabiliteit, standaarden, normen en waarden biedt waardoor men zich waardig kan voelen en waarbij men beloofd wordt dat, bij naleving van deze waarden, een symbolische transcendentie voor de dood hen te wachten staat; en 2) zelfwaarde – het geloof dat iemand voldoet aan deze cultureel gestelde waarden. Deze psychologische constructies worden gezien als een manier waarop mensen omgaan met hun eigenlijk sterfelijkheid.

Door deze benadering te integreren met onderzoek naar intergroepsprocessen en sociale identiteit, wordt de centrale rol van groepslidmaatschap in het bufferen van de angst benadrukt. Mensen reageren op een aanval op hun bestaan door te veranderen naar collectieve (in plaats van persoonlijke) categorisatie, omdat sociale groepen vaak meer kans hebben te overleven dan het individu. Het individu voelt zich door dit groepsgevoel vervolgens minder sterfelijk.

De afgelopen twintig jaar hebben veel bewijs voor de TMT opgeleverd. Zo blijkt inderdaad dat herinneringen aan de dood ervoor zorgen dat mensen op zoek gaan naar meer bescherming en moeite doen om hun zelfvertrouwen te beschermen of te vergroten. Ook het idee van het collectieve zelf wordt ondersteund door verschillende onderzoeken. Door zich te identificeren met de eigen culturele groep is er sprake van ingroup-favoritisme en outgroup discriminatie en geweld, wat kan leiden tot vicieuze cirkels van geweld en tegengeweld.

Op welke twee manieren wordt de informatie verwerkt? En tot welke verdedigingsmechanismen leidt dit?

Uit onderzoek blijkt dat er een verschil is tussen bewuste en onbewuste herinneringen aan de dood. Het duale verwerkingsmodel van terroristisch management benadrukt dat de bewuste consequenties zijn dat mensen hun kwetsbaarheid ontkennen en dat ze gedachten over de dood onderdrukken. Dit is een proximale verdedigingsstrategie, die dient om het probleem uit het bewustzijn van mensen te duwen. Als dit succesvol gebeurt, gaan de gedachten over de dood voort in het onbewuste van de mens. Dit leidt tot distale verdedigingsmechanismen, waarbij mensen gaan werken aan hun zelfwaarde en culturele wereldbeeld. Deze distale verdedigingsmechanismen maken het moeilijker om in vrede samen te leven met mensen van andere groepen.

Welke effecten kan het identificeren met een groep met zich meebrengen?

Wanneer mensen zich met een groep identificeren (de ingroup) distantiëren ze zichzelf van andere groepen (outgroups). Deze identificatie met de ingroup hangt samen met ingroup favoritisme, en soms ook met outgroup haat. Deze mechanismen worden getriggerd wanneer mensen worden herinnerd aan de dood: uit onderzoek blijkt dat mensen na herinneringen aan de dood meer aansluiting voelen met racistische ideologieën en dat dit zich ook kan uiten in fysieke agressie tegen de outgroup. Dit ingroup favoritisme en outgroup haat zijn vooral voor minderheden in een maatschappij een probleem – zij krijgen meer negatieve reacties en worden gediscrimineerd ten opzichte van de meerderheid. Uit onderzoek blijkt namelijk ook dat mensen die herinnerd zijn aan de dood meer vertrouwen op stereotypen (onderdelen van hun culturele wereldbeeld), en hierbij meer letten op stereotype-consistente dan –inconsistente informatie. Hierdoor worden negatieve stereotypen behouden en soms zelfs versterkt, waardoor het conflict nog meer uit de hand kan lopen. Ook worden mensen door herinneringen aan de dood meer rigide en minder flexibel in hun manier van denken, wat nog meer bijdraagt aan ingroup favoritisme, stereotypering en discriminatie.

Op welke manier ontstaan herinneringen aan de dood in gewelddadige conflicten? En wat zijn de effecten hiervan?

Veel gewelddadige conflicten zoals oorlog of terroristische aanslagen zorgen voor een omgeving waarin herinneringen aan de dood en de fragiliteit van het leven alom vertegenwoordigd zijn. Deze herinneringen kunnen dus leiden tot een katalysator van het conflict, waardoor een vicieuze cyclus van geweld ontstaat. Tevens werd gevonden dat herinneringen aan de dood ervoor kunnen zorgen dat het vredesherstellende werk van internationale militaire troepen kan falen. Bedreigingen behouden de traditionele percepties van vriend en vijand en kunnen zo leiden tot een verminderd potentieel voor positieve verandering tussen de twee groepen. Dit proces verloopt deels via de self-fulfulling prophecy, wanneer iemand verwacht gezien te worden als vijand zal hij zich ook meer zo gaan gedragen.

De media speelt een belangrijke rol in deze herinneringen aan de dood: door rapportages over oorlogen of aanslagen worden mensen hiermee geconfronteerd. Echter, deze herinneringen aan de dood hebben ook invloed op hoe en wat journalisten schrijven. Uit onderzoek blijkt dat journalisten meer negatieve feiten over een outgroup rapporteren wanneer zij herinnerd zijn aan de dood. Ook door te rapporteren over bedreigingen voor het wereldbeeld van mensen, wordt de angst voor de outgroup versterkt.

Alles bij elkaar is er dus een hoop bewijs voor de negatieve effecten van herinneringen aan de dood. Existentiële bedreigingen verergeren de escalatie van conflict tussen groepen doordat mensen meer gemotiveerd worden hun sociale ingroups en wereldbeelden te steunen en verdedigen. Dit veroorzaakt vijandige attitudes en gedrag tussen de groepen, welke vervolgens het conflict kunnen escaleren en uiteindelijk kunnen zorgen voor een nog grotere existentiële bedreiging. De auteurs stellen echter dat existentiële bedreiging niet onvermijdelijk hoeft te leiden tot een tragedie: herinneringen aan de dood in combinatie met bepaalde modererende variabelen kan de escalatie van het conflict mogelijk vermijden.

Hoe kan de vicieuze cirkel worden verbroken?

Perceptie van bedreiging

De meest directe manier waarop de vicieuze cirkel kan worden verbroken is door de perceptie van bedreiging weg te nemen. Echter, dit is niet altijd mogelijk. Denk bijvoorbeeld aan militairen of families die in oorlogsgebied werken of wonen. Ook gebruiken politici deze herinneringen vaak als strategie om mensen klaar te maken voor een eventuele oorlog.

Zelfdeterminatie en zelfcontrole

Volgens onderzoek vinden mensen de dood vooral eng omdat ze hier geen controle over hebben. Door mensen te herinneren aan dat dat in sommige situaties wel zo is (bijvoorbeeld euthanasie) kunnen de effecten van herinneringen aan dood verminderen. Ook zijn de effecten van herinneringen aan dood minder uitgesproken in mensen die een hoge interne locus van controle hebben.

Religie

Herinneringen aan de dood zorgen er soms voor dat mensen meer gaan geloven in een religie. Religie schijnt mensen dus te helpen met het omgaan met angsten voor de dood. Als een religieuze beweging bijvoorbeeld gelooft dat iemands ziel altijd door zal blijven leven, verkleint dit de angst voor de dood. Op deze manier kan religie er ook voor zorgen dat mensen minder snel hun wereldbeeld gaan beschermen, en het conflict dus minder uit de hand loopt.

Welke alternatieve buffers van angst zijn er verder nog?

De activatie van deze buffers kan zorgen voor minder negatief gedrag tussen groepen, omdat ze zorgen voor existentiële zekerheid waardoor mensen minder kwetsbaar worden voor angst en de toegankelijkheid van dood-gerelateerde gedachten verminderen.

Eigenwaarde

Eigenwaarde zorgt voor een gevoel van persoonlijke waarde, verkregen doordat men gelooft dat hij/zij leeft naar de culturele standaarden van zijn/haar wereldbeeld. Uit onderzoek blijkt dat herinneringen aan de dood zorgen voor een streven naar een hogere eigenwaarde, dat dit streven zorgt voor een buffer van de angst, en dat verhogingen van de eigenwaarde het effect van herinneringen aan de dood vermindert.

Echter, het streven naar een hogere eigenwaarde kan ook schadelijke effecten hebben. Dit gebeurt wanneer men probeert hun eigenwaarde te verhogen door anderen te kleineren of te indoctrineren.

Integratie in culturele ingroups

Het beschrijven jezelf in termen van een maatschappelijke ingroup kan de angst van de dood bufferen, omdat het een gevoel van collectieve onsterfelijkheid geeft. Eerder stelden we dat dit kon leiden tot ingroup favoritisme. Echter, een veiliggestelde integratie in een sociale ingroup zou er ook voor moeten zorgen dat men verder niet meer de sociale wereldbeelden hoeft te verdedigen. Dit zou dan moeten leiden tot een minder defensieve reactie op herinneringen aan de dood.

Om door immersie in een ingroup minder defensief te reageren, moet ten minste aan drie basisvoorwaarden worden voldaan: 1) individuen moeten goed geïntegreerd zijn in de groep, of zichzelf zien als lijkend op het prototype van de groep; 2) mensen moeten het gevoel hebben dat de groep aan bepaalde eigenschappen voldoet, zoals collectieve continuïteit; 3) de relevante sociale identiteit moet niet worden aangevallen, omdat mensen dan juist de neiging hebben hun identiteit te verdedigen.

Bevestiging van het wereldbeeld

Wanneer mensen een bevestiging van hun wereldbeeld krijgen, kunnen deze beelden dienen als een buffer voor herinneringen aan de dood. Wanneer dit wereldbeeld versterkt wordt (en dus wordt gezien als een stabiel en zeker beeld) zal dit een buffer zijn voor angst. Hierdoor hoeven mensen hun wereldbeeld niet meer te verdedigen, wat de negatieve effecten vermindert. Tevens zorgt een bevestiging van het wereldbeeld ervoor dat mensen meer open staan voor andere culturen.

Goede relaties

Goede relaties kunnen ook dienen als buffers voor angst, en er zo voor zorgen dat mensen zich minder defensief gaan gedragen wanneer zij bang zijn voor de dood. Juist wanneer mensen zich bewust zijn van de dood gaan ze sociale relaties ontwikkelen en hierin investeren. Het nadenken over scheiding van deze partner kan er dan dus juist voor zorgen dat herinneringen aan de dood meer toegankelijk zijn…

Kinderen

Kinderen kunnen dienen als een symbolische vorm van onsterfelijkheid: in hun kinderen leven mensen door. Verschillende studies bevestigen inderdaad dat herinneringen aan de dood ervoor zorgen dat mensen meer kinderen willen. Ook blijken beelden van pasgeboren dieren herinneringen aan de dood te verminderen. Het hebben van kinderen saillant maken, kan voor een angstbuffer zorgen en op die manier defensief gedrag over een wereldbeeld verminderen.

Hoe kunnen pro-sociaal gedrag en normen invloed hebben op conflictsituaties?

Escalatie van een bedreigende situatie kan ook nog op een andere manier voorkomen worden: mensen verdedigen namelijk de ideeën en gedragingen die voorgeschreven worden door hun wereldbeeld en door de groep waar ze bij horen. Dit impliceert dat herinneringen aan de dood kunnen zorgen voor het nakomen van collectieve normen en waarden. Herinneringen aan de dood leiden tot het volgen van normen die het meest prominent in het bewustzijn zijn op dat moment. Er zijn drie verschillende soorten normen: 1) persoonlijke normen – ons geïnternaliseerde gevoel van hoe we ons moeten gedragen; 2) injunctieve normen – wat uit het morele perspectief van de samenleving zou moeten worden gedaan; en 3) descriptieve normen – standaarden die we ontwikkelen uit onze waarnemingen van het gedrag van anderen. Al deze normen bieden de mogelijkheid om in te gaan tegen de vijandige reacties die normaal gesproken door herinneringen aan de dood worden uitgelokt. Verschillende voorbeelden laten zien dat herinneringen aan de dood de reacties van individuen polariseert – positieve reacties kunnen dus voortkomen uit positieve normen. De specifieke situatie bepaalt welk deel van de normen naar boven komt, en welke norm hier dus bij hoort.

Er zijn verschillende onderzoeken die ook een re-categorisatie van in- en outgroup bevestigen en laten zien dat de grenzen tussen ingroup en outgroup kunnen vervagen (een Duitser kan worden gezien als outgroup door een Nederlander, wat zo negatief gedrag kan veroorzaken. Echter, zien Nederlanders deze Duitser als mede-Europeaan, gaan ze hem behandelen als lid van de ingroup). Herinneringen aan een bredere ingroup kan dus positieve effecten tussen groepen teweeg brengen en de effecten van herinneringen aan de dood teniet doen.

Als we dan niet gemaakt zijn om oorlog te voeren, wat moeten we dan nu?

Het uit de hand lopen van conflicten is dus niet per se nodig. Er zijn verschillende manieren waarop dit voorkomen kan worden, zoals hierboven besproken. De kneedbaarheid van de effecten van dreiging op attitudes tussen groepen is de belangrijkste boodschap van dit artikel. Deze kneedbaarheid leent zich voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek, maar zeker ook voor een toegepast of politiek perspectief.

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Article summary with More about when I's meet: The intergroup ramifications of I-sharing, part II by Pinel a.o. - 2018

Article summary with More about when I's meet: The intergroup ramifications of I-sharing, part II by Pinel a.o. - 2018

Summary of the article: More about when I's meet: The intergroup ramifications of I-sharing, part II - Pinel, Long, Johnson & Yawger - 2018. The most important concepts in this article are intergroup processes, prejudices, stereotyping, self, help, and pro-social behavior.

What is meant by I-sharing?

The concept of I-sharing means the belief that someone has shared the same subjective experience with another person at exactly the same time. Previous investigations into I-sharing showed that more research is needed into improving intergroup relationships (intergroup dimensions encompasses concepts such as nationality, age, race, religion, political preference, and gender).

When researching the effects of I-sharing, it is important to share I-sharing through Me-sharing. Participants must receive information on both forms regarding their interaction partner. With Me-sharing dimensions, think for example of how someone would describe themselves, someone's social identity, their values and beliefs.

The writers further expand the research in three ways, chiefly:

  1. Pursuit of the mechanism that underlies the I-sharing effects;
  2. Try to find an answer to the question whether I-sharing promotes positive, behavioral intergroup results;
  3. Investigate whether the effects of I-sharing have a generalizing effect on the outgroup in general.

According to the authors, various studies show that I-sharing prefers a member of an outgroup through a process of subtypes. The reason for this appears in a second study in which it appears that a member of an outgroup promotes a general sense of subjective connection with an I-divisor. I-sharing also promotes help within intergroup lines and shows that with one member of the I-sharing outgroup, the infra humanization of the outgroup in general is reduced.

Several studies show that I-sharing prefers others who are objectively unequal. It also ensures that people adapt less quickly and promotes thinking about their existential isolation What the writers mean by this is the fundamental inability to know someone else's ego. People with a Me-sharing do not do that.

How was I-sharing manipulated?

They did this by allowing participants to associate freely on nonsensical subjects and by an approach in which the participants shared their in-the-moment experience with their interaction partner. They then immediately noticed whether their interaction partner had identical experiences.

What are the most important results from the authors' second study of I-sharing?

In the second study, the authors expanded their research into I-sharing and intergroup processes in two different ways. The strongest evidence is that I-sharing is opposing the preferences of group members among African-American participants. This also applies to the preferences of incomes between whites, heterosexuals, women, and medium and lightweight individuals. Secondly, the results show that I-sharing has an effect that increases people's sense of being subjective to the I-divisor. According to the authors, these results show that these two measures cannot be attributed to one and that one is not more effective than the other.

The writers note that in addition to explicit and implicit forms of prejudice, people regard out-group members as less human than in-group members. They call this the infrahumanization effect. This effect manifests itself over a range of intergroup dimensions. In addition, it predicts tangible results for out-groups. Consider, for example, a reduced desire to help someone else.

What do writers think is the effect of I-sharing experiences on existential isolation?

I-sharing experiences can be a good antidote to existential isolation. This is because when we share something of ourselves, we feel more existentially connected to the other. This can be for a short moment.

In the future, research can be useful for a series of social behavioral outcomes. For example, the ability to compromise on an important task that affects both parties at the same time. But also consider answering the question whether the effect of I-sharing on feelings of subjective likeness, or existential connection, in turn, promotes feelings of faith validation and wants to belong. It is therefore a comprehensive approach. This builds directly on the growing evidence and can serve to complete the understanding of the positive intergroup results.

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