Deze samenvatting is gebaseerd op het studiejaar 2013-2014.

Chapter A: An introduction to project management

Project: a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. To define further:

• A project has a unique purpose
• A project is temporary
• A project is developed using progressive elaboration or in a repetitive fashion
• A project requires resources, often from various areas
• A project should have a primary customer or sponsor
• A project involves uncertainty

Triple constraints:

• Scope: work done as part of the project. Product or service result expected by sponsor.
• Time: time to complete project and schedule
• Cost: cost to complete the project. Budget of the project

Quadruple constraints, includes quality along with scope time and cost.

Project management: the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements.
Project shareholders are people involved in or affected by project activities and include; Project sponsor, project team, support staff, customers, users, suppliers and even opponents to the project.
Support staff: People who support the stakeholders. E.g. administrative assistant.
Project management knowledge areas:  describe the key competencies that project managers must develop.
 

Core knowledge areas:

• Project scope management: working with appropriate stakeholders to define, gain written agreement for, and manage all the work required to complete the project.
• Project time management: Estimating how long it will take to complete the project, develop schedule.
• Project cost management: prepare & manage the project budget
• Project quality management: ensures project satisfies the stated and implied needs for which it was undertaken.

Facilitating knowledge areas:

• Project human resource management:  make effective use of people involved in the project.
• Project communication management: generate, collect disseminate and storing project info.
• Project risk management: identify, analyze and respond to risks related to the project
• Project procurement management: acquiring or procuring goods and services

9^th knowledge area: Project integration management: overarching function affecting all. It involves coordination, anticipating and dealing with issues, making decisions at best interest of the project.

Tools and techniques concerning those areas

• Integration management: project selection methods, mgt methodologies, stakeholder analysis, PM software, change request, Lessons-learned, etc.
• Project scope management: Scope statements, work breakdown structures, requirement analysis, mind maps, etc.
• Project time management: Gant charts, network diagrams critical-path analysis, etc.
• Project cost management: Net present value, Return on Investment, earned value mgt, etc.
• Project quality management: Checklists, Pareto diagrams, fishbone diagrams, statistical methods, maturity models, etc.
• Project human resource management:  Motivation techniques, organizational charts, etc.
• Project communication management: Kickoff meetings, Status and progress reports, etc.
• Project risk management: Risk mgt plans, risk register, probability matrices, etc.
• Project procurement management: Make-or-buy analysis, contracts, etc.

Two important concepts that help projects meet enterprise goals are the use of Programs, a group of related projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available from managing them individually. Within a program, a program manager provides leadership and direction for the project managers heading the projects within the program.

The program managers also coordinate the efforts of project teams, functional groups, suppliers, and operations staff supporting the projects to ensure that project products and processes are implemented to maximize benefits.
An example: A construction company has several programs; within those programs, they have different projects.
The second important concept is Portfolio management “the continuous process of selecting and managing the optimum set of project initiatives that deliver maximum business value”, also to align projects, programs and portfolios with strategic goals.

Project management is about tactical goals, are we carrying out projects well and are they on time.
Project portfolio management is about strategic goals: are we working on the right projects, are we investing in the right areas, right resources etc.

Portfolio managers help select projects, program managers oversee groups of related projects, and project managers lead their specific projects.

Effective project managers provide leadership by example, are visionary, technically competent, decisive good communicators and good motivators. Positive leadership or leading by example contributes the most to project success.
 

Skills and competencies for effective project managers: People skills, leadership, listening, Integrity & ethical, Good trust builder, verbal communication, team builder, good conflict manager, Critical thinker, Balances priorities.

Chapter B: Selection of Project, program and portfolio

Strategic planning: Involves a SWOT, predicting trends, and project the need for new products and services.
SWOT: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
 

(see figure 1 in the attachment)

4 stage planning process for selecting projects

1. Str. Planning: determine org. strategy, goals and objectives.
2. Analysis of business processes central to achieving str. Goal.
    
3. Project planning: define potential projects, based on scope time & cost goals.
4. Resource allocation: choosing which projects to do and assign resources.

One method for selecting projects based on broad org. needs is to; first determine whether they meet three important criteria: need, funding and will.

Three primary methods for determining projected financial value of projects include:

1. Net present value (NPV) analysis: method of calculating the expected net monetary gain or loss form a project by discounting all expected future cash inflows and outflows to the present time. Positive NPV means return form a project exceeds the opportunity cost of capital.  Calculation (1) determine estimated costs and benefits (2) Determine discount rate [rate used in discounting future cash flows, also called capitalization rate, opportunity cost] (3) calculate and interpret NPV p.48
2. Return on investment (ROI): result of subtracting the project costs from the benefits and then dividing by the costs.  Also possible to determine internal rate of return (IRR) by finding what discount rate results in an NPV of zero for the project.
3. Payback analysis: determines how much time will lapse before accumulated benefits overtake accumulated and continuing costs.

Weighted scoring model: is a tool that provides a systematic process for selecting projects based on many criteria such as meting strategic goals amount of time to complete a project, overall priority of the project, financial performance etc.. Basic idea is to Koppel a weight to several criteria and use that idea to score your projects; the one with highest weighted score is according to your criteria the best.

Balanced scorecard: methodology that converts an organization’s value drivers as e.g. –customer service, innovation, operational efficiency and financial performance- to a series of defined metrics.

You can also select projects on:

• Problems, opportunities or directives (new requirements imposed by management, government or other external influence)
• Time frame: if it is necessary to do within a certain time (change projects for year 2000)
• Project priority

Program selection: org. decides if it is advantageous to manage several projects together as part of a program or fit is in an existing program. Focus for this is on coordination of the project and Cost, time benefits.

Portfolio selection: No simple process for deciding how to create project portfolios, but goal is to maximize business value to ensure enterprise success. Project portfolio managers and other senior managers, must focus on how all of an organization’s projects fit together to help the enterprise achieve success, the strategic issues.

Project portfolio categories:

(see figure 2 in the attachment)

Nondiscretionary costs are necessary to run your business, for the discretionary costs you decide which project is the best.

Chapter C: Initiation of projects

Projects involve 5 project management process groups: Initiation, Planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing. The groups are not isolated events, e.g. monitoring & control happens throughout the whole project.
Process: a series of actions directed toward a particular result. All projects use the five process groups. A map of how the process groups apply on the knowledge areas can be found on p.73
This chapter is about the initiation process. Including stakeholder analysis, Project charter, kick-off meeting, and preliminary scope statement.

Several Methodologies for projects: PRINCE 2(Projects IN Controlled Environments) [Project steps, what to do when], RUP (Rational Unified Process) [software development process focusing on team productivity], Six Sigma [driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data and statistical analysis, to manage and improve business processes].

Business case: A document that provides justification for investing in a project. Content can vary but typically includes: Introduction/ background, business objective, problem statement, Critical assumptions, analysis of options and recommendations, schedule estimate, potential risks etc.
Without top management, commitment projects often fail. Some projects have Champions senior managers who act as key proponent. Commitment of top mgt is necessary for resources for project manager, approval for unique project needs, cooperation throughout the company and as mentor/ coach.

There are several tasks before the project initiation starts: determine scope, time cost constraints, ID sponsor, Select project manager, Meet with project manager to review process & expectations, etc.
Project steering committee: to oversee project & steer it in the right direction.

Stakeholder analysis: provides information on key stakeholders to help manage relationships with them. Because a stakeholder analysis often includes sensitive information, it should not be part of the official project plans.

Stakeholders/ actors might be: Project leader, principal, problem owner, Financer, Line management, Members of project team, End users, Clients etc. To draw up the project environment, Define the stakeholders, define their Goals, interests, problems (make a stakeholder map), and set requirements.
Make a relationship map: Relations between stakeholders, here you qualify on: importance of the relationship, Quality of the relationship towards project and strength of relationship.

Project charter: a document that formally recognizes the existence of a project and provides a summary of the project’s objectives and management. It authorizes the PM to use of org. resources.
Project charters typically include: Title and date of authorization, start date, finish date, budget info, info about PM, Objectives, sign-off and comments
because many projects fail because of unclear requirements and expectations, stating with a project charter makes sense. Example p.90
Kick-Off meeting: meeting held at the beginning of a project so that stakeholders can meet each other, review the goals of the project, and discuss future-plans. Purpose of a kick-off meeting is to get support for a project and clarify roles and responsibilities.
Scope statement document to develop and confirm a common understanding of the project scope. It describes in detail the work to be accomplished on the project and is an important tool for preventing Scope creep –the tendency for project scope to continually increase-. A scope statement usually becomes more detailed over time and often contains; product characteristics, requirements & deliverables as well as project success criteria.

Chapter D: Planning projects

(project integration, scope, time and cost management )

The main purpose of project planning is to guide project execution
The following sections describe planning tasks and outputs. You can consider many of these planning tasks as following a chronological order, especially for scope, time and cost tasks.

Planning tasks for project integration management (coordination all the project mgt knowledge areas throughout the projects life span) are: Team contracts: help promote teamwork and clarify communications. To coordinate and integrate information across all management knowledge areas and the organizations you need a good Project management plan, which a document used to coordinate all project-planning documents and to help guide a projects execution and control. Example p.112

Project scope management, planning tasks, involves defining and controlling what work is or is not included in a project. A scope statement is a summary of all deliverables, the products or service requirements and characteristics, and project requirements, the project success criteria & it refers to related documents.
Scope management plan: document that includes descriptions of how the team will prepare the scope statement, create the WBS, Verify completion of the project deliverables, and control requests for changes to the project scope.
Scope statement- Requirements: ID requirements starting from list of stakeholders. Sort requirements:

• Preconditions:  requirements that have to be fulfilled to make a project possible. (Future environment, legislator).
• Primary requirements: Requirements concerning the functioning of the result on its main goal/ purpose/ objective. (Principal, end user).
• Secondary requirements: Wishes and demands concerning easiness in use, safety, maintenance etc.  (End user, operational user).
• Design limitations: requirements concerning the project itself, concerning the making of the result, methods used etc. (intermediate users, creators, team members)

Product breakdown structure (PBS): Why doing the PBS, To handle complexity, Improving overview with the risk of losing just that overview, Speeding up the project (by doing sub projects executed in parallel).
Principles are that Relations between the project as whole and sub projects is weaker than the relation within sub projects. Every sub project has its own sub product, steering must be possible within the sub project.

Work breakdown structure (WBS): the activities that must be performed to realize the final product of the (sub) project. It is a document that breaks all the work required for the project into discrete tasks, and groups those tasks in a logic hierarchy.
Work package: a task at the lowest level of the WBS. Tasks on a WBS represent work that needs to be done o complete the project.
 

Possible methods to develop a WBS:

• Using guidelines:
• The analogy approach: you use a similar project’s WBS as starting point for your new one.
• Top-down Approach: start with largest item, break them into their subordinate items.
• Bottom-up Approach: Team members first identify, as may specific tasks related to the project as possible. They then aggregate the specific tasks and organize them into summary activities or higher levels in the WBS. (for e.g entirely new products)
• Mind mapping: technique-using branches radiating out from a core idea to structure thoughts and ideas. (can be used by top down & bottom-up)

Organizational breakdown structure: Relates Resources (employees etc.) to the WBS.

Project time management, planning tasks. The main planning tasks performed as part of project time management are:

• Activity definition: defining all the activities it needs to perform to ensure that project team members have a complete understanding of all the work they must do as part of the project scope so that they can start scheduling the work.
  • Create an activity list: tabulation of activities included on a project schedule. Activity attributes: provide schedule-related info about each activity, predecessors, successors, relationships etc.
  • Create Milestone list milestone a significant event on a project.
     
• Activity Sequencing: reviewing the activity list and attributes, project scope statement, and milestone list to determine the relationship or dependencies between activities.
  • 3 basic reasons for creating dependencies:
    • Mandatory dependencies: inherent in the nature of the work being performed. Hard logic, relationships are unavoidable.
    • Discretionary dependencies: defined by project team. Soft logic, might limit later scheduling options
    • External dependencies: Involve relationships between project and non-project activities.

• Network diagrams: schematic display of the logical relationships among, or sequencing of, project activities (PERT charts) AOA activity-on-arrow or ADM Arrow diagramming method, here the activities are represented by arrows. A Node in these diagrams is simply the starting and ending point of an activity.
  Burst: occur when two or more activities follow a single node
  Merge: occurs when two or more nodes precede a single node
  Precedence Diagramming method (PDM) boxes represent the activities. In this you can have Finish to start relations: Predecessor activity must be finished before the successor activity can start.
  Start to start, a relationship in which the “From” activity (where the arrow comes from) cannot start until the “to” activity is started.
  Finish to finish, A relationship in which the “from” activity must be finished before the “to” activity can finish.
  Start to finish A relationship in which the `from` activity must be started before the `to` activity can be finished.
   

• Activity resource estimating: Before you can estimate the duration for each activity, you must have a good idea of the quantity and type of resources) people, equipment and materials’ that will be assigned to each activity. Key output is documentation of activity resource requirements.
   
• Activity durations estimating: this process is about time management to estimate duration of activities. Duration includes the actual amount of time spent working on an activity plus elapsed time. Don’t confuse this with Effort, which is the number of workdays or work hours required to complete a task. 3 point estimate includes: optimistic, most likely and pessimistic estimate, this is required for PERT (program evaluation and review technique). PERT weighted average = (optimistic time + 4 * most likely + pessimistic time)/ 6
   
• Schedule development:  uses the results of all the preceding project time management processes to determine the start and end dates of project activities and of the entire project
  • Gant charts: Provide a standard format for displaying project schedule information by listing project activities and their corresponding start and finish dates in calendar format.
  • Critical path analysis {method} (CPM):  a network diagramming technique used to predict total project duration. The critical path for a project is the series of activities that determine the earliest time by which the project can be completed. It is the longest path through the network diagram and has the least amount of slack or float. Slack of flat are defined as the amount of time an activity may be delayed without delaying a succeeding activity or project finish date.
    The critical path shows the shortest time in which a project can be completed.
     

Crashing: a technique for making cost and schedule trade-offs to obtain the greatest amount of schedule compression for the least incremental costs. Fastening projects duration at lowest possible costs.
 

• Critical chain scheduling: a method of scheduling that considers limited resources when creating a project schedule and includes buffers to protect the project completion date. This is an advanced scheduling technique that addresses the challenge of meeting or beating project finish dates is an application of the TOC (Theory of constraints). The TOC is based on the fact that, like a chain with its weakest link, any complex system at any point in time often has only one aspect of constraints that limits its ability to achieve more of its goals.

Murphy’s law: if something can go wrong, it will
Parkinson’s law: work expands to fill the time allowed. (if you include a buffer in a task estimate and you did not need it, you will still use it).

Project cost management: includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an approved budget. 3 commonly used techniques for creating cost estimates include:

• Analogous estimates/ top-down estimates: use actual cost of a previous, similar project as the basis for estimating the cost of the current project.
• Bottom-up estimates: involve estimating individual activities and summing them to get a project total. This approach can increase accuracy of cost estimate, but can be time intensive.
• Parametric modeling: uses project characteristics (parameters) in a mathematical model to estimate costs. Reliable when historical information is used.

Cost budgeting: allocating the project cost estimate to tasks over time. These tasks are based on the WBS structure for the project. Main goal is to produce a cost baseline.

First a project costs money, then you get even, after your breakeven point you start to make profit.

(see figure 3 in the attachment)

Chapter E: Planning projects, (Quality, Human resource, communications, Risk and Procurement management).

Project quality management ensures that the project will satisfy the stated or implied needs for which it was undertaken. Quality: defined by ISO as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements”.  Conformance to requirements: means that the project’s processes and products meet written specifications.
Fitness for use: a product can be used as it was intended.
A quality management plan describes how the project management team will implement quality policies.
Quality metrics, Metric is a standard of measurement, can be e.g. time, customer satisfaction, and cost reduction. You might use charts to keep track of the metrics such as a project dashboard –a graphical screen summarizing key project metrics.
Quality Checklist: a list of items to be noted or consulted. Help to very that required topics or steps are covered.

Within the Quality plan:

• Metrics need to be clearly deduced form the requirements
• Link between requirements and metrics needs to be logical
• The table must be complete
• Quality criteria specify which metric values indicate quality
• ‘report’ deals with how the outcomes of the measurements are documented, communicated and archived.
• Must correspond with HR plan, Time plan and communications plan etc.

Project Human resource management: is concerned with making effective use of the people involved with a project. Key outputs produced as part of project human resource planning include:

• Project organizational chart: A graphic representation of how authority and responsibility is distributed within the project.
• Responsibility assignment matrix: a matrix that maps the work of the project as described in the WBS to the people responsible for performing the work. It allocates work to responsible and performing organizations, teams or individuals, depending on the desired level of detail. E.g.
  • RACI chart: Responsibility (who does the task), Accountability (who signs off the task or is responsible), Consultation (Who has information necessary to complete the task), Informed (who needs to be notified of task status/ results). This chart lists tasks vertically and individuals or groups horizontally, each intersecting cell contains at least one of the letters R.A.C.I.
• Resource histogram: A column chart that shows the number of resources required for or assigned to a project over time. Used in planning project staffing needs.
• Staffing management plan: Describes when and how people will be added to and removed from a project.

Project communications management planning tasks. Many PM’s say that 90% of the job is communicating but many fail to take the time to plan for project communications. Project communication management involves generating, collecting, disseminating, and storing project information. The communications Mgt plan should address:

• Stakeholder communications requirements
• Information to be communicated, incl. format, content, and level of detail
• ID of who will receive the information and who will produce it
• Suggested methods or guidelines for conveying the information
• Escalation procedures for resolving issues
• Revision procedures for updating the communications mgt plan
• Glossary of common terminology used on the project

Blogs- easy-to-use journals on the web that allow users to write entries, create links, and upload pictures while allowing readers to post comments to particular journal entries.

Project risk management planning tasks. To spot latent obstacles and to formulate and take preventive and curative actions. ID risk, Assess probability, Formulate preventive (influence probability) and curative (influence impact) responses to execute them. Risk = PROBABILITY * Impact
Although frequently overlooked good risk management can often result in significant improvements in the change of a project succeeding.  PMI defines risk as an uncertainty that can have a negative or positive effect on meeting project objectives. Key outputs:

• Risk management plan: documents the procedures for managing risk throughout the life of a project. It summarizes how risk management will be performed on a particular project. The general topics that a risk mgt plan should address include:
  • The methodology for risk management
  • Roles and responsibilities
  • Budget and schedule estimates for risk-related activities
  • Risk categories
  • Probability and impact matrices
  • Risk documentation

Many projects include in addition to a risk mgt plan also

• Contingency plans: predefined actions that the project team will take if an identified risk event occurs
• Fallback plans: developed for risks that have a high impact on meeting project objectives, and are put into effect if attempts to reduce the risk are not effective.
• Contingency reserves/ contingency allowances: funds held by the project sponsor that can be used to mitigate cost or schedule overruns if unknown risks occur.
   

• Probability/ impact matrix: risk events refer to specific, uncertain events that may occur to the determinant or enhancement of the project. A project manager can chart the probability and impact of risk events on a probability/ impact matrix or chart.
• Risk register: Document that contains results of various risk management processes, often displayed in a table or spreadsheet format. It is a tool for documenting potential risk events and related information. Often includes:
  • An ID number for each risk event
  • A rank for each risk event
  • The name of the risk event
  • Description of the risk event
  • The category under which the risk event falls
  •  The root cause of the risk event
  • Triggers for the risk event: triggers: indicators or symptoms of actual risk events
  • Potential responses to each risk event
  • The risk owner, or person who will own or take responsibility for the risk event
  • The probability of the risk event occurring
  • The impact of the risk if it occurs
  • The status of the risk event
     
• Risk-related contractual agreements: Work done by outside suppliers or sellers should be well documented.  This can be done with Contracts, are mutually binding agreements that obligate the seller to provide the specified products or services, and obligate the buyer to pay for them. Include in a contract clauses to help manage project risk.

Project procurement management includes acquiring or producing goods and services for a project from outside the organization. Key outputs are

• Make-or-buy analyses: used to decide if it would benefit more by making a product or performing a service itself, or y buying the product or service from a supplier. It involves, estimating the internal costs of providing a service and comparing that estimate to the cost of outsourcing. Also existing: lease-or-buy analysis.

Procurement management plans: a document that describes how the procurement processes will be managed, from developing documentation for making outside purchases or acquisitions to contract closure.
Contract type is a key consideration in a procurement management plan. Different types can be used, 3 broad categories are:

• Fixed-price/ Lump-sum contracts: involve a fixed total price for a well-defined product or service
• Cost-reimbursable contracts:  involve payment to the seller for direct and indirect actual costs.
• Time-and-material contracts:  are a hybrid of both fixed-price and cost reimbursable. Most consultants prefer this type.

Unit pricing can also be used in various types of contracts to require the buyer to pay the supplier a predetermined amount per unit of service.
 

• Request for proposal or quote: When organizations decide to procure goods or services the often create documents to describe what they plan to procure and how potential sellers should respond. 2 common examples of documents include:
  • Request for proposal (RFP): Used to solicit proposals from prospective suppliers. A proposal is a document in which sellers describe what they will do to meet the requirements of a buyer.
  • Request for quote (RFQ): a document used to solicit quotes or bids from prospective suppliers. A Bid (also called a quote) is a document prepared by sellers providing for standard items that have been clearly defined by the buyer.
     
• Contract statements of work (SOW): a description of the work that is to be purchased (example p. 194), the SOW should be included with the RFP to clarify the work that needs to be performed. The contract SOW is a type of scope statement that describes the work in sufficient detail to allow prospective suppliers to both determine if they are capable of providing the goods and services required and to determine an appropriate price for the work.
•  Supplier evaluation matrices: Is highly recommended that buyers use formal supplier evaluations procedures to help select sellers.

Chapter F: Project Execution

As part of project integration management, the project manager must perform the task of directing and managing stakeholders to complete the project. Several important practices to help accomplish this:

• Coordinate planning and execution
• Develop and use soft skills
• Provide a supportive organizational culture
• Break the rules when needed: by e.g. using politics
• Capitalize on product, business and application area knowledge
• Use project execution tools and techniques

Poor conflict management: Blake & Mouton delineate 5 basic modes for handling conflicts:

1. Confrontation: when using confrontation mode, PM directly face a conflict using a problem solving approach. Best used when  both task and relationship are of high importance
2. Compromise: When using the Compromise mode PM use a give-and-take approach to resove conflicts. Reflects lose/lose approach
3. Smoothing: Smoothing mode, the PM de-emphasizes or avoids areas of differences and emphasizes areas of agreement. Best used when relationship is of high importance and task is of low importance.
4. When the task is of high importance and relationship of low importance.
5. Withdrawal: Withdrawal mode, project managers retreat or withdraw form an actual potential disagreement.  Both task and relationship are of low importance.

Quality improvement techniques:

• Benchmarking: generates ideas for quality improvements by comparing specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other projects or products within or outside of the organization itself.
• Quality audit: a structured review of specific quality management activities that helps identify lessons learned, which could improve performance on current or future projects.
• Cause-and-effect diagrams:  Also called fishbone diagrams. example P.217

Human resources:  related theories

Maslow hierarchy of needs:
 

(see figure 4 in the attachment)

Herzberg’s Motivation –Hygiene Theory: factors that cause job satisfaction motivators, factors that cause dissatisfaction, hygiene factors.

MCCleland’s Acquired-Needs Theory:: proposed that an individual’s specific needs are acquired or learned over time and shaped by life experiences. Main categories of acquired needs include:

• Achievement: people with a high need for achievement seek to excel and tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations to improve chances of achieving something worthwhile.
• Affiliations: people with a high need for affiliation, desire harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by others.
• Power: People with the need for power desire either personal power or institutional power.        

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor was one of the great popularizers of a human relations approach to management, and he is best known for developing Theory X and Y. In his research McGregor found that although many managers spouted the right ideas, they actually followed a set of assumptions about worker motivation that he called Theory X (sometimes referred to as classical systems theory). People who believe in Theory X assume that workers dislike and avoid work if possible, so managers must use coercion, threats and various control schemes to get workers to make adequate efforts to meet objectives.

Theory X managers assume that the average worker wants to be directed and prefers to avoid responsibility, has little ambition, and wants security above all else. When research seemed to demonstrate that these assumptions were not valid McGregor suggested Theory Y (sometimes referred to as human relations theory). Managers who believe in Theory Y assume that individuals do not inherently dislike work but consider it as natural as play or rest. The most significant rewards are the satisfaction of esteem and self-actualization needs, as described by maslow.

Thamhain and Wilemon’s Influence Bases

H.J. Thamhain and D.L. Wilemon investigated the approaches Project managers use to deal with workers and how those approaches relate to project success. They identified nine influence basis available to project managers:

1. Authority: The legitimate hierarchical right to issue orders,
2. Assignment: The project manager’s perceived ability to influence a worker’s assignment to future projects,
3. Budget: The project manager’s perceived ability to authorize the use of discretionary funds,
4. Promotion: The ability to improve a worker’s position,
5. Money: The ability to increase a worker’s pay and benefits,
6. Penalty: The project manager’s perceived ability to dispense or cause punishment,
7. Work challenge: The ability to assign work that capitalizes on a worker’s enjoyment of doing a particular task, which taps an intrinsic motivational factor,
8. Expertise: The project manager’s perceived specialized knowledge that others deem important,
9. Friendship: The ability to establish friendly personal relationships between the project manager and others.

Covey’s Effectiveness Research

The Research, based on the theory from Maslow and Herzberg, to develop an approach for helping people and teams become more effective. The first three habits: of effective people – be proactive, begin with the end in mind, and put first things first – help people achieve a private victory by becoming interdependent. Second, people can strive for interdependence by developing the next three habits- think win/win; seek first to understand then to be understood; and synergize. (Synergy is the concept that the whole is equal to more than the sum of its parts). Finally, Everyone can work on Covey’s seventh habit- sharpen the saw- to develop and renew their physical, spiritual, mental, and social/ emotional selves.

Improve effectiveness on projects as follows:

1. Be proactive: People have the ability to be proactive and choose their responses to different situations. Project managers must be proactive, anticipate, and plan for problems and inevitable changes on projects. They can also encourage team members to be proactive in their work.
2. Begin with the end in mind: People focus on their values, what they really want to accomplish, and how they really want to be remembered in their lives. He suggests writing a mission statement to help achieve this habit. Many organizations and projects have mission statements that help tem focus on their main purpose.
    
3. Put first things first: Covey developed a time-management system and matrix to help people prioritize their time. He suggests that most people need to spend more time doing things that are important but not urgent. (this includes planning, reading and exercising).Prj managers should focus on important and not urgent activities as developing various project plans, building relationships with major project stakeholders, and mentoring project team members. They also need to avoid focusing only on important and urgent activities.
    
4. Think win/win: Covey presents several paradigms of interdependence, with ‘think win/win’ being the best choice in most situations. Prj managers should strive to use this in making decisions, but sometimes, especially in competitive situations, they must use a win/lose paradigm.
    
5. Seek first to understand, then to be understood: Empathic listening is listening with the intent to understand by putting yourself in the shoes of the other person. To really understand other people, you must learn to focus on others first.
    
6. Synergize: In projects a project team can synergize by creating collaborative products that are much better than a collection of individual efforts. Teams can by brainstorming reach more than one person on its own. Synergy is essential to many complex projects.
    
7. Sharpen the saw: take time to renew yourself physically, spiritually, mentally and socially. This helps to avoid burnout. Project managers must make sure that they themselves and their project team have time to retrain, reenergize and occasionally ever relax to avoid burnout.

Before you can practice emphatic listening people must talk to you. In many cases, you must work on developing a rapport with other people before they will really open up to you. Rapport is a relationship of harmony, conformity, accord, or affinity. Without rapport people cannot begin to communicate, or the strong person might dominate the weaker one. One technique for establishing rapport is using a process called mirroring. Mirroring is the matching of certain behaviors of the other person. You can mirror e.g. someone´s voice tone and or tempo, breathing, movements, or body postures.

Acquiring the project team and making staffing updates

Project manager chooses a management team, together hire staff. Necessary: strong influencing and negotiating skills. 3 reasons people leave their job (by choice): (found by William C. Taylor)

1. They feel they do not make a difference
2. They do not get proper recognition
3. They are not learning anything new or growing as a person

Resource Loading and Leveling:

2 techniques to help use project staff most effectively:

1. Resource loading: Refers to the amount of individual resources an existing schedule requires during specific time periods. It helps project managers develop a general understanding of the demands of a project will make on the organization’s resources, as well as on individual people’s schedules. Often used for this are resource histograms (ch. 5) these also show very nicely if there is Overallocation which means  more work than given time).
    
2. Resource leveling: technique for resolving resource conflicts by delaying tasks. It is a form of network analysis in which resource management concerns drive scheduling decisions (start and finish dates). The main purpose of resource leveling is to create a smoother distribution of resource usage.

To make sure you spread workload over the whole project equal and make try to handle overallocation you practice resource leveling which has several benefits: (blz 228)

1. When resources are used on a more constant basis, they require less management. F.e. it is much easier to manage a part-time project member who is scheduled to work 20 hours a week for the next three months than it is to manage someone who is scheduled to work 10 hrs 1 week, 40 the next 5 after that etc.
2. Resource leveling may enable project managers to use a just-in-time inventory type of policy for using subcontractors or other expensive resources.
3. Resource leveling results in fewer problems for project personnel and accounting departments. Increasing and decreasing labor levels and particular human resources often produce additional work and confusion.
4. Resource leveling often improves morale. People like to have some stability in their jobs. It is very stressful for people not to know from week to week or even day to day what projects they will be working on and with whom they will be working.

Tuckman model describes 5 stages of team development:

1. Forming: involves the introduction of team members, either at the initiation of the team or as new members are introduced. This stage is necessary, but little work is actually achieved
    
2. Storming: Occurs as team members have different opinions as to how the team should operate. People test each other, and there is often conflict within the team.
    
3. Norming: Is achieved when team members have developed a common working method, and cooperation and collaboration replace the conflict and mistrust of the previous phase.
    
4. Performing: Occurs when the emphasis shifts to reaching the team goals rather than working on teams’ process. Relationships are settled, and team members are likely to build loyalty toward each other. At this stage, the team is able to manage tasks that are more complex and cope with greater change. Note that not all teams are able to progress through the team development stages to reach the performance level.
    
5. Adjourning: Involves the breakup of the team after they successfully reach their goals and complete the work. Teams might also adjourn due to poor performance or project cancellation.

Think about training, Teambuilding activities. 2 common tools for team building include the Myeers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) and the Wilson Learning Social Styles Profile.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: is a popular tool for determining personality preferences.4 dimensios:

1. Extrovert/ Introvert (E/I): This first ddimension determines if you are generally extroverted or introverted. The dimension also signifies whether people draw their energy from other people (extroverts) or from inside themselves (introverts). About 75% of people in general population are extroverts.
2. Sensation/ Intuition(S/N): This second dimension relates to the manner in which you gather information. Sensation (or sensing) type people take in facts, details, and reality and describe themselves as practical. Intuitive type people are imaginative, ingenious, and attentive to hunches or intuition. They describe themselves as innovative and conceptual.
3. About 75% of people in the general population have a preference for sensation.
   Thinking/Feeling(T/F): This third dimension represents thinking judgment is objective and logical, and feeling judgment is objective and logical, and feeling judgement is subjective and personal. The general population is generally split evenly between these two preferences.
4. Judgement/perception(J/P): This fourth dimension concerns people’s attitude toward structure. Judgment type people like closure and task completion. They tend to establish deadlines more as a signal to start rather than compete a project and do not feel that work must be done before play or rest begins. People are generally split evenly between these two preferences.

There are 16 MBTI categories based on combinations of the four dimensions. E.g. ESTJ, INFP or ENTP. Project managers also want to make sure that they have a variety of personality types on their team. Many organizations use Wilson Learning’s social Styles Profile in team-building activitys. Psychologist David Merrel, who helped develop the Social Skills Profile, categorizes four approximate behavioral profiles or zones. People are perceived as behaving primarily in one of four zones, based on their assertiveness and responsiveness.

• “drivers” are proactive and task oriented. They are fimly rooted in the present, and they strive for action. Adjectives to describe drivers include pushy, severe, though, dominating, harsh, strong-willed, interdependent, practical, decisive and efficient.
• “Expressives” are proactive and people oriented. They are future oriented and use their intuition to look for fresh perspectives on the world around them. Adjectives to describe expressive include manipulating, excitable, undisciplined, reacting, egotistical, ambitious, stimulating, wacky, enthusiastic, dramatic and friendly.
• “Analyticals” are reactive and task oriented. They are past oriented and strong thinkers. Adjectives to describe analytical include critical, indecisive, stuffy, picky, moralistic, industrious, persistent, serious, expecting and orderly.
• “Amiables” are reactive and people oriented. Their time orientation varies depending on whom they are with at the time, and they strongly value relationships. Adjectives to describe amiables include conforming, unsure, ingratiating, dependent, awkward, supportive, respectful, willing, dependable, and agreeable.

More can be found on page 254 Ch. 6

Chapter G: Projects monitoring and control

• Earned value management (EVM) is a project performance measurement technique that integrates scope, time, and cost data.
• Given a baseline, project managers and their teams can determine how well the project is meeting scope, time, and cost goals by entering actual information and then comparing it to the baseline.
• The baseline information includes:
  • Scope data (WBS tasks)
  • Time data (start and finish estimates for each task)
  • Cost data (cost estimates for each task)
     
• The planned value (PV) is that portion of the approved total cost estimate planned to be spent on an activity during a given period.
   
• The actual cost (AC) is the total direct and indirect costs incurred in accomplishing work on an activity during a given period.
   
• The earned value (EV) is an estimate of the value of the physical work actually completed. It is based on the original planned costs for the activity and the rate at which the team is completing work on the activity to date.
   
• The rate of performance (RP) is the ratio of actual work completed to the percentage of work planned to have been completed at any given time.

(see figure 5 in the attachment)

Some activities may be over budget, or behind schedule, whereas others may be under budget and ahead of schedule. By adding all of the earned values for all project activities, you can determine how the project as a whole is performing and forecast both when it will be completed and how much it will cost at completion.

BAC Budget at completion, or approved total budget for the project, can be divided by the cost performance index to calculate the (EAC) which is a forecast of how much the project will cost upon completion.

Integrated change control involves identifying, evaluating, and managing changes through-out the project’s life cycle 3 main objectives are:

1. Influencing the factors that cause changes to ensure that changes are beneficial:
2. Determining that a change has occurred:
3. Managing actual changes as they occur:

The project management plan provides the baseline for identifying and controlling project changes as follows:

• A section of the plan describes the work to be performed on a project, including key deliverables for the project and quality requirements.
• The schedule section of the plan lists the planned dates for completing key deliverables.
• The budget section provides the planned cost for these deliverables.

Key outputs: deliverables that are accepted by the customer

Monitoring and Controlling tasks for project quality management

Although one of the main goals of quality control is to ensure and improve quality, the main outcomes of this process are acceptance decisions, rework and process adjustments.

Many different tools and techniques for performing quality control and developing control measurements are available.

1. Cause-and effect diagram: Helps to find the root cause of quality problems. (fishbone)
    
2. Control chart: Graphic display of data that illustrates the results of a process over time. Control charts allow you to determine whether a process is in or out of control.
    
3. Run charts: A run chart displays the history and pattern of variation of a process over time. It is a line chart that shows data points plotted in the order in which they occur.
    
4. Scatter diagram: helps show if there is a relationship between two variables. The closer data points are to a diagonal line, the more closely the two variables are related.
    
5. Histograms: A bar graph of a distribution of variables. Each bar represents an attribute or characteristic of a problem or situation, and the height of the bar represents its frequency.
    
6. Pareto charts: Is a histogram that can help you identify and prioritize problem areas. The variables described by the histogram are ordered by frequency of occurrence in a column chart, and a line chart is added to show cumulative percentage on the right of the chart. Pareto charts help you identify the vital few contributors that account for most quality problems in a system. (sometimes is also referred to as the 80/20 rule).
    
7. Flowcharts: Flowcharts are graphic displays of the logic and flow of processes that help you analyze how problems occur and how processes can be improved. They show  activities (using the square symbol), decision points (using the diamond symbol), and the order of how information is processed (using arrow symbols).
   (page 275)

MONITORING and Controlling Tasks for project human resource management

Tools and Techniques for managing project teams

• Observation and conservation: Informal or formal conversations about how a project is going can provide crucial information.
• Project performance appraisals: Just as general managers provide performance appraisals for their workers, so can project managers. The need for and type of project performance appraisals varies depending on the length of the project. The complexity of the project, organizational policies, contract requirements and related communications.
• Conflict management: Few projects are completed without any conflict. Some types of conflict are actually desirable on projects, but many are not.
• Issue logs: Many project managers keep an issue log to document, monitor and track issues that need to be resolved for effective work to take place. Issues could include situations in which people disagree, situations that need more clarification or investigation or general concerns that need to be addressed.

MONITORING and Controlling Tasks for project communications management

Performance reporting

Keeps stakeholders informed about how resources are being used to achieve project objectives. Work performance information and measurements, forecasted completion dates, quality-control measurements, the project management plan, approved change request and deliverables are all important inputs to performance reporting. 2 key outputs of performance reporting are reports and forecasts. 2 report types:

• Status reports: describe where the project stands at a specific point in time. In terms of scope, time and cost goals.
• Progress reports: Describe what the project team has accomplished during a certain period.
• Forecasts: Predict future project status and progress based on past information and trends

MONITORING and Controlling Tasks for project Risk management

Workarounds-unplanned responses to risk events- when they do not have contingency plans in place.

MONITORING and Controlling Tasks for project Procurement management

Several tools and techniques can help in contract administration:

• Formal contract change-control system
• Buyer-conducted performance reviews
• Inspections and audits
• Performance reporting
• Payment systems
• Claims administration
• Record management
• Information technology to support contract administration

It is critical that project managers and team members watch for constructive change orders. Constructive change orders are oral or written acts or omissions by someone with actual or apparent authority that can be construed to have the same effect as a written change order. (From page 293)

The last task in project integration management is closing the project. To close a project, you must finalize all activities and transfer the completed or canceled work to the appropriate people. Main outputs of closing projects are as follows:

• Administrative closure procedures:  It is important for project teams and other stakeholders to develop and follow a step-by-step process for closing projects. In particular, administrative closure procedures should define the approval process for all project deliverables and how records will be retained.
   
• Contract closure procedures: many projects involve contracts which are legally binding agreements. Contract closure procedures describe the methodology for making sure that the contract has been completed, including both delivery of goods and services, and payment for them.
   
• Final products, services, or results: Project sponsors are usually most interested in making sure that final products, services, or results are delivered on schedule and within budget. A final project report and presentation are also commonly used during project closing.
   
• Updates to organizational process assets: org. process assets help people understand, follow and improve business processes (CH. 6)

Transition plan: Included information related to what work had to be done, by whom, and when. When developing a transition plan, the project team should work with managers in affected operating department, and the contents of the plan should be tailored to fit the support needs of the project.

Close out meeting, lessons learned,

Closing tasks for project procurement management

Contract closure: involves completion and settlement of contracts, and resolution of any open items. The project team should determine if all work required in each contract was completed correctly and satisfactorily, also update records to reflect final results and archive information for future use. To tools to assist contract closure are: Procurement audits, often performed during contract closure to identify lessons learned in the entire procurement process, and a Records management system, which provides the ability to easily organize, find and archive documents, such as those related to procurement.

PMI project management institute OPM3 = organizational Project Management Maturity Model, developed to provide a way for org. to measure their organizational project management maturity against a comprehensive set of best practices. Best practice ‘an optimal way recognized by industry to achieve a stated goal or objective’

KPI key performance indicator: criterion used to determine whether the outcome associated with a capability exist, or the degree to which it exists.

CMM Capability Maturity Model (earlier version of CMMI Capability Maturity Model Integration, which consist out of 5 levels,1:  incomplete, 2: performed, managed, 3: defined, 4: quantitatively managed, 5: Optimizing). PMI’s OPM3 includes the first 4.

ESI International Project FRAMEWORD is a 5 level maturity model:

1. Ad-hoc
2. Consistent
3. Integrated
4. Comprehensive
5. Optimizing

Berkeley’s Project Management Process Maturity (PM)² model includes these 5 levels:

1. Ad-hoc: No project management processes or practices are consistently available, and data is not consistently collected or analyzed.
2. Planned: Project management processes, problem areas, and data are informally defined, identified, collected.
3. Managed: Formal project planning and control systems and data are managed.
4. Integrated: Program management is used, and project management data and processes are integrated and quantitatively analyzed, measured and stored.
5. Sustained: Project management processes are continuously improved and are fully understood, and data is optimized and sustained.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CLASSICAL

(see figure 6 in the attachment)

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(see figure 9 in the attachment)

Afhankelijk van de tijd, kun je onderzoeken hoe complex iemand/ een project is

(see figure 10 in the attachment)

Core strategy, all support the main strategy.

Requirement: Can be e.g. Readable
Metric: Typed, font size (is about design) so need other metric (at least 5 out of 6 must say it is readable)