ITPT - lecture 5

› 5 answers = 5 main theories of motivation

1. Satisfaction of needs

2. Drive reduction

3. Incentives

4. Optimal level of arousal

5. Pleasure principle

Scientific definitions

› Terms emotion, mood etc. § Often used interchangeably in everyday language § Psychologists distinguish between them

› Mood § Diffuse, long-lasting emotional state § Does not have an identifiable object or trigger

› Emotion § Immediate, specific negative or positive response § To environmental events or internal thoughts

Emotion: 3 components

1. Physiological process § E.g., heart beating fast, sweating

2. Behavioral response § E.g., eyes and mouth opening wide

3. Feeling based on: § Cognitive appraisal of the situation § Interpretation of bodily states - E.g., I’m scared!

Classifying emotions

› Primary emotions § Innate § Evolutionarily adaptive § Universal (shared across cultures)

› Examples: § anger § fear § sadness § disgust § happiness § surprise § contempt

› Secondary emotions § Blends of primary emotions › Examples: § guilt § shame § love § bitterness § jealousy

› Circumplex model § Another system for classifying emotions

› Emotions plotted along two continuums § Valence - How negative or positive emotions are § Arousal - How arousing emotions are

Feeling specific emotions › How do people come to experience a certain emotion § How do people know which emotion they feel? › 3 main theories § James-Lange § Cannon-Bard § Schachter-Singer

› Concept video: Theories of emotion

Functions of emotions

› Emotions have a communicative function § Genuine emotions § Deception

› How to tell the difference? § Fake vs. Duchenne smiles § https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZxgCpyOAqGI&t=11s ØLong interest in detection of deception

Polygraph

› Electronic “lie detection” instrument § Assesses the body’s physiological response to questions § Records numerous aspects of arousal - E.g., breathing rate, heart rate, skin conductance

› Use of polygraphs is highly controversial § Often not allowed as evidence in court cases § But continued use by criminal investigators and federal agencies - FBI, CIA

Lie detection

› How valid are polygraphs as lie detectors? § Understand working and assumptions

› Goal of polygraphy § Determine a person’s level of emotionality - Indicated by autonomic arousal § When confronted with certain info

› Core assumption § Lying is stressful for most people § Autonomic arousal higher when people are lying than when they are telling the truth

Lie detection

› No absolute measure of autonomic arousal can indicate presence / absence of a lie § Each person’s level of autonomic arousal is different

› Differences between physiological responses to: § Control questions § Critical questions

› Differences in autonomic reactions to critical questions § Compared to control questions § Indicate arousal

› Arousal may indicate nervousness from lying § Or due to general nervousness - Falsely indicate that the person is lying (only knowing that the questions of the victim is exciting is already more exciting (if you did it or not) so the arousal is higher anyway. People are more nervous to answer those questions then the questions about their names)

Problems with polygraphs

› Numerous problems with using polygraphs to uncover deception

› Serious drawback: § Innocent people often falsely classified as deceptive

› Most people who fail the tests § Actually telling the truth § Simply anxious about taking the test

› Polygraph cannot tell whether response is due to § Lying § Nervousness § Anything else arousing

› Pretty easy to pass using countermeasures § Counting backward by sevens § Pressing your feet to the floor during critical questions

› Perhaps the most serious issue § Investigator has to make subjective judgment - Whether pattern of arousal indicates deception

› Judgment often influenced § Investigator’s beliefs about whether person is guilty

Confirmation bias

› Beliefs influence judgment

› Also found in laboratory studies § Especially with ambiguous polygraphy results

› Problem throughout forensic assessments § Particularly when individuals develop “tunnel vision” - Fixate on a particular suspect - Ignore / discount counter evidence

Lie detection 2.0

› Researchers are seeking new strategies to uncover deception

› Differences in brain activity § When lying vs. telling the truth - Numerous studies using EEG and fMRI

› Activation of various brain regions: § Genuine deception § Simply reflects other cognitive processes? - Currently unknown

› Team of neuroscience experts § Several methodological problems with fMRI research to detect deception § Additional ethical issues - E.g. privacy - Need further consideration before fMRI is ready for the courtroom

Definitions concerning motivation

› Can you distinguish? § Need, drive, motivation ØBook: “Drives motivate the satisfaction of needs”

› Need § A state of biological or social deficiency

› Drive § A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need

› Motivation § A process that energizes, guides, and maintains behaviour toward a goal.

2 types of motivation

› Extrinsic § Motivation to perform an activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed - E.g., working to receive a paycheck

› Intrinsic § Motivation to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity - Rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose - E.g., reading a good novel, listening to music ØExtrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation § See book pp. 406–407

Need hierarchy

› Maslow: People are driven by many needs (see picture)

› Arranged into a need hierarchy § Basic survival needs must be met - Before people can satisfy higher needs

Your motivation to act § Explained by Maslow’s need hierarchy? › Or would you rank the importance of these needs differently?

› You may have different opinions § Which needs are important § Order in which you rank their importance › People may rank the needs differently § depending on the situation ØMaslow’s hierarchy simply describes one way to think about motivations

Sex and gender

› What is the difference between sex and gender? § Biological sex § Gender identity § Do not necessarily align

› Concept video: Biological sex and gender identity § Chapter 9 Human development - Development of gender identity (pp. 366–368)

Hormones

› Influence: § Producing and terminating sexual behaviors § Development of secondary sex characteristics

› Sex differences § Males more androgens § Females more estrogens and progesterone activity

Testosterone

› Type of androgen

› Males need a certain amount § To be able to engage in sex § Do not perform better if more testosterone

› In women, testosterone stimulates § Sexual thoughts and desires § Typical females have relatively low levels of testosterone

Personal stories about testosterone

› Podcast “This American life” § Episode on testosterone - Man who stopped producing testosterone due to a medical treatment - Transgender man on how his testosterone injections changed his views on nature vs. nurture for good § https://www.thisamericanlife.org/220/testosterone Ø For your own interest, not exam materials

Oxytocin

› Released during sexual arousal and orgasm § May promote love and attachment between partners § Seems involved in social behavior more generally

Cultural influences: Gender norms

› Behaviour of men and women is not just influenced by biological factors § Hormones

› Sexual behaviours in movies and other media § https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSSv170r5J0

Cultural influences: Sexual behaviour

› Sexual behaviour is not just influenced by biological factors § Hormones § Neurotransmitters

› Sexual behaviours in movies and other media § Shape beliefs and expectations - What sexual behaviors are appropriate - When they are appropriate

Sexual scripts

› Cognitive beliefs about how a sexual episode should be enacted § E.g., what is “normal” in: - Flirting - Dating › Scripts differ in many places in the world § E.g. countries where arranged marriages are common

”Normal” sexual behaviours

› Most changes in sexual behaviours due to changes in cultural pressures and expectations § What is considered “normal”

› Sexual customs and norms vary across cultures § Cultures and their norms change over time § But all known cultures have some form of sexual morality - Ideas about which sexual behaviours are (not) morally and socially acceptable

› Erotic plasticity § Extent to which sex drive can be shaped (even tho there are harmonical drivers)- By social, cultural, and situational factors

› Instinctive sexual behaviours are constrained by social context § Frontal lobes inhibit unintentional breaking of social rules - Which are determined largely by culture

Sexual orientations

› Most people attracted to opposite sex § Through history and across cultures

› Many people (also) attracted to same sex § 2–5 % of US population exclusively same sex § 1–2 % of US population both males and females ØSexual orientation as a continuum

› Homosexual behavior has been noted in various forms throughout recorded history. § 1973: American Psychiatric Association (APA) removed diagnosis of “homosexuality” from 2nd edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) › Many theories of sexual orientation § None received conclusive support

Development of sexual orientations

› How does sexual orientation develop? § How parents treat their children? § Any other environmental factors?

› Little or no evidence § Overwhelming majority of studies on environmental role § Biological factors (people have a chose?) / genes? (its like a disease? DSM) – Unclear; ethical issues

Influencing sexual orientation

› Therapy cannot change sexual orientation § Sexual activity can be changed § Sexual orientation does not seem a choice / changeable

› Non-heterosexuals have always existed § Whether or not they were free to be themselves § Book: John Mace & Richard Dorr (New York City, 1950) - When homosexuality was illegal in every US state - 2012: Finally married, at ages 91 and 84 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-0436fi780&t=1s

Practice questions

“My stomach feels as if I swallowed a large, jagged rock,” Jeff thinks. “This interview must be making me feel very nervous.” Jeff’s emotions are best explained by the _______ theory of emotion.

A.James-Lange B.Schachter-Singer two-factor C.drive reduction D.Cannon-Bard

Cassy loves playing new and exciting racing video games that get her heart racing. Based on this fact alone, her motivation to play these games is best explained by ________.

1. optimal arousal B. drive reduction C. satisfaction of needs D. incentives

Eight-year-old Simon loves stickers. When he successfully completes his homework, he gets to choose two stickers from a jar. If Simon diligently completes his homework in order to get the stickers, then he is motivated by ________.

A.satisfaction of needs B.the pleasure principle C.incentives D.optimal arousal

Maria is an 18-year-old woman, and Dale is an 18-year-old man. Both are physically developing in a normal manner. However, Dale experiences more sexual thoughts and desires than Maria. This is best explained by Dale’s having _______ levels of ______ than does Maria.

A.lower; testosterone B.greater; estradiol C.lower; estrogens D.greater; androgens

Summary this week

• Studied emotion and motivation

› As a result, you can:

• Describe and explain the major concepts, findings, and theoretical perspectives of psychological research on emotion and motivation
• Apply basic psychological principles to explain human emotion and motivation
• Critically evaluate statements made about about policies and cultural practices regarding emotion and motivation by using psychological frames of reference