What are gender stereotypes?

Stereotypes are beliefs about a social category. They can become problematic when they lead to expectations about one social category over another, or when they restrict opportunities for one social category over another. With regards to gender, women have generally been presented in more decorative and family oriented roles, and less in professional roles. Men were generally shown as more independent, authoritarian, and professional, with little regard to their age and physical appearance.

What social changes have caused changes in gender stereotypes in advertising?

Three societal changes have led to changes in the gender stereotypes that were being used in advertising. The first is the rise of feminism in the 1960s. It challenged equal opportunities for men and women and caused a gradual change in occupational opportunities and domestic structures. The second societal change is characterized by changes in the labor force, bringing about significant variation in both male and female roles. Finally, the changing role structure in the family has created significant variations in the female role. Because of these changes in society, women were less and less portrayed in an inferior manner relative to their potential and capabilities.

What is the mirror versus de mold debate?

The mirror versus the mold debate concerns the disagreement about the role and social nature of advertising when it comes to stereotypes within advertising. The ´mirror´ point of view states that advertising reflect values that exist and are dominant in society. Advertising functions as a magnified lens simply amplifying a social phenomenon. They consider the impact of advertising as insignificant. The ´mold´ point of view believes that peoples´ perception of social reality is shaped by the media. Advertising is viewed as having a large impact. People are believed to incorporate stereotypes that are presented by the media into their own system of values, ideas, and beliefs about life. More realistic is to view this argument as existing on a continuum. Advertising is a system of visual representation that both reflects and contributes to culture.

What does the research between 2010-2016 say about gender stereotypes in advertising?

Recent research shows that:

• Gender stereotyping in advertising still exists and is prevalent in many countries around the world, especially for woman. Occupational status still showed the highest degree of stereotyping, despite the education, occupation, and status changes earned by women in the last years.
• Stereotyping seems to differ for public versus private TV channels. On public channels, stereotyping was higher for variables like role and location and occupation status. On private channels, stereotyping relates more to role behavior and physical characteristics.
• While stereotyping exists in advertising, consumer´s perceptions about it may be less serious than expected due to the use of humor. Gender role portrayals are less serious if they are used as sources of humor. Male stereotypes are more prevalent in humorous ads, whereas female stereotypes are more prevalent in non-humorous ads.
• Chinese advertising depicts males in more occupational and recreational roles, whereas women were depicted in more decorative roles. Another research interviewing Chinese advertising professionals revealed that the professionals believe they are simply reflecting Chinese culture (the ´mirror´).
• Advertising professionals are more tolerant of the stereotypical depictions of men and women than are consumers.

How is the European Union trying to reduce gender stereotypes?

The EU received more and more complaints by consumers which caused them to review how marketing and advertising affects equality between men and women. They have updated their ethical guidelines on gender portrayals and approved anti-discrimination laws in several EU countries. They are also following recommendations from a scientific study that showed that less restrictive literacy programs and awards for positive advertising are more effective at reducing gender stereotyping, as opposed to increased legislation and regulation.

How has the portrayal of men in advertising changed?

Examining perceptions of how gender portrayal impacts men and women, it became clear than men are also affected by their stereotype and that they wished for more research on the negative impact of their gender stereotype. Research into the gender stereotype of men in advertising only shows minor changes in the last few years, with an increased portrayal or men as fathers, and some male characters used to portray society´s changing views of men and women´s roles. 

What should future scientific research be focused on?

A few areas can be identified that are in need of scientific research:

• Most of the current research has been done on advertising in printed media and television advertising. Future research should find a way to examine advertising in digital formats, native advertising, and social media platforms.
• Future research should examine the stereotypes of the LGBT consumers in advertising.
• Recent advertising has focused on empowered women, also called femvertising. The goal of these messages are to celebrate women rather than objectifying them. However, the fear is that some companies are using femvertising to increase sales and lack authenticity.