Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition) - a summary

This is a summary of the book: Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K. This book is about the history of Psychology and how now-day psychology came to be. The book is used in the course 'Foundations of psychology' at the second year of psychology at the University of Amsterdam.

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The wider picture, where did it all start? - summary of chapter 1 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of PsychologyChapter 1The wider picture, where did it all start?Introduction This book describes the growth of psychology as an independent branch of learning and tries to comprehend the essence of the discipline. The introduction of written records represents one of the most important moments in the development of science.The preliterate culture Preliterate civilisation: civilisation before writing was invented.Though these civilisations have not left us with written testimonies, it is possible to discern several important features of them by studying existing cultures that do not use writing.This research revealed three important characteristics of knowledge in these kinds of cultures:Although cultures without literacy know how to make tools, start fires, obtain shelter, hunt, fish, and gather fruit and vegetables, their skills are not based on an understanding of how things work, but rather on practical rules of thumb of what do do when.There knowledge is confided to ‘know-how’ without theoretical understanding of the underlying principlesThe fluidity of knowledgeKnowledge of the actual history of the tribe is limited to two generations and the function of the oral tradition is mainly the transmission of practical skillsThe existence of a collection of myths and stories about the beginning of the universe, life and natural phenomena, in which human traits are projected onto objects and events.Animism: explanation of the workings of the world and the universe...

Lees verder over The wider picture, where did it all start? - summary of chapter 1 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century and its aftermath - summary of chapter 2 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of PsychologyChapter 2The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century and its aftermathIntroduction The word psychology did not appear in literature before 1500.Scientific revolution: name given to a series of discoveries in the seventeenth century, involving Galilei, Descartes and Newton, that enhanced the status of science in society. The geocentric model of the universe in the sixteenth century The earth as the centre of the universe The model that of the universe used in the sixteenth century was the model described by Aristotle who built on others) and elaborated by Ptolemy.Aristotle’s universe was a limited universe with the Earth in the middleGeocentric model: model of the universe in which the Earth is at the centre; was dominant until the seventeenth century.The addition of epicycles A key problem within the Aristotelian universe was the movements of some of the wandering stars.To explain strange movements, Ptolemy used the notion of ‘epicycles’.Epicycles: small cycles made by the wandering stars in addition to their main orbit around the earth. Copernicus’s alternative heliocentric model The sun at the centre of the universe Aristotle’s model was not the only one that had been proposed in ancient cultures.Heliocentric model: model of the universe in which the...

Lees verder over The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century and its aftermath - summary of chapter 2 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Eighteenth- and nineteenth- century precursors to a scientific psychology - summary of chapter 3 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of PsychologyChapter 3Eighteenth- and nineteenth- century precursors to a scientific psychology A characteristic of current Western society is that people derive their self-image and self-esteem from their own qualities and accomplishments rather than from the position of their family in society.Individualisation: trend in a society towards looser social relations and a greater focus by individuals on themselves than on the groups they belong to.Historians believe that this process of individualisation started sometime around the end of the Middle Ages and is still growing.Following factors are contributions:Increased complexity of societyIncreasing diversity in occupations and complexity of social relationsIncreased urbanisation and industrialisation put people into more complex and competitive social networks, in which everyone struggled to maintain a sense of dignity and meaning.As the number of occupations and trades grew, people felt a greater need to position themselves relative to others.Increased control by the stateSociety gathered and stored more and more information about its individuals, which was reported back to the citizens. This information gathering gave people the feeling of standing out of the crowd.Individuality promoted by ChristianityThis religion puts an emphasis on the solitary individual, because each person’s private state of faith and religion to God is the essence of piety.Mirrors, books and lettersThe presence of a mirror in the house made...

Lees verder over Eighteenth- and nineteenth- century precursors to a scientific psychology - summary of chapter 3 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Establishing psychology as an independent academic discipline - summary of chapter 4 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of psychologyChapter 4Establishing psychology as an independent academic discipline By 1850 there was a thriving literature of psychological subjects in Germany.The universities reform in Germany Universities in the German states for a long time were dominated by the humanities and religion.This was a feature proponents of the Enlightenment fought against.The Enlightenment ideas mainly came from a group of academics who had been expelled from the University of Leipzig, because of their critical attitude and modern ways of thinking.A reform took place after the defeat of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805-1806.The defeat by the French particularly upset the Prussians, who decided it was high time to modernise their country.The school system was reorganised and a new university model was installed.Whereas before the universities had been places of education, mainly aimed at the training of physicians, lawyers and clergy, scientific research now became part and parcel of an academic career with its own financing.Wissenschaft: scholarship and scientific researchBildung: the making of good citizensThe power of the university was put in the hands of a limited number of professors who were given academic freedom and resources to pursue their interests and who had a number of assistants and...

Lees verder over Establishing psychology as an independent academic discipline - summary of chapter 4 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Strengthening the scientific standing of psychology - summary of chapter 5 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundations of psychologyChapter 5Strengthening the scientific standing of psychologyThe USA began to rule psychology in the twentieth century.Sheer amount of researchTextbooks The expansion of psychology around the start of the twentieth century As well as laboratories, in 1892 the American Psychological Association (APA) was founded, giving psychology researchers a forum to meet and discuss their findings.Two journals were established that would dominate the field and that still exists today.American journal of psychologyPsychological review The first American psychology: functionalism As psychology in the USA expanded, it got moulded by the expectations and preoccupations of American society.A strong interest in Darwin’s evolutionary theoryInheritanceAmerica was one of the first countries where eugenics had a strong impactEugenics: social philosophy claiming that the fate of a nation can be improved by selective breeding of the inhabitants Positive eugenics: encouraging people with desirable features to have more childrenNegative eugenics: improve society by preventing people with undesirable features from entering the country and/or having children Adaptation to the environmentAmericans were convinced that human characteristics and achievements were not solely due to inheritance but depended on the environment as well.One could change and...

Lees verder over Strengthening the scientific standing of psychology - summary of chapter 5 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

The input from brain research - summary of chapter 6 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundations of psychologyChapter 6The input from brain research Beliefs of the ancient Egyptians The Edwin Smith papyrus In 1862 an American collector, Edwin Smith, bought a papyrus scroll in the Egyptian city of Luxor.In the text, written around 1700 BCE, but probably a copy of an older papyrus from 3000 BCE, a series of 48 cases were described dealing with the consequences of head and neck injuries.Each case included a title, details of the examination, a diagnosis and an indication of the treatment.The diagnosis consisted of one of three conclusionsThis is an ailment that I will treatThis is an ailment that I will try to treatThis is an ailment that I will not treat The Edwin Smith papyrus: papyrus from Ancient Egypt that contains short descriptions of the symptoms and treatment of different forms of brain injury; named after the person who bought the papyrus in Egypt and had it analysed.They illustrate how physicians treating wounded soldiers quite early became convinced of the importance of the head (brain) in controlling behaviour.Beliefs in the wider society The existence of the Edwin Smith papyrus did not imply that the knowledge contained in it was widespread.In Ancient Egypt most scholars were convinced that the heart was the seat of the soul.The...

Lees verder over The input from brain research - summary of chapter 6 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

The mind-brain problem, free will and consciousness - summary of chapter 7 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundations of psychologyChapter 7The mind-brain problem, free will and consciousness Throughout history, humans have been impressed by their ability to reflect about themselves and the world around them.Self: the feeling of being an individual with private experiences, feelings and beliefs, who interacts in a coherent and purposeful way with the environment.Mind-brain problem: issue of how the mind is related to the brain.Three main viewsDualismThe mind (or soul) is something independent of the bodyMaterialismThe mind is nothing but a by-product of the biological processes taking place in a particular brain.FunctionalismThe mind is indeed realised in a brain, but it could be copied in any other brain.Just like information on a computer can be copied to other computers Mind: aggregate of faculties humans (and animals) have to perceive, feel, think, remember and want.Dualism: view of the mind-body relation according to which the mind is immaterial and completely independent of the body; central within religions and also in Descartes’ philosophy.Dualism in religion and traditional philosophyReligion Dualism is central to religions.They are grounded in the belief that people possess a divine soul created by God, which temporarily lives in the body, and which leaves the corpse upon its death.The soul is what gives...

Lees verder over The mind-brain problem, free will and consciousness - summary of chapter 7 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

How did psychology affect everyday life? - summary of chapter 8 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of psychologyChapter 8How did psychology affect everyday life?Introduction Over the course of the twentieth century, the discipline of psychology grew from a marginal academic field to a discipline that has done more than any other to transform the routines and experiences of everyday life.Applied psychology: the application of psychological knowledge and research methods to solve practical problems. Evolutions before World War IIMental health problems must be treated by partitioners with a medical degree Psychologists were not allowed to provide unsupervised therapies in official settings and their private practices were not covered by health insurance.The first clinical psychology centres Treatment centres run by psychologists started in the USA and were university-related.Lightner WitmerOpened the faculty that was the first psychology health centre in 1896.Aimed at helping behavioural and learning problems in school children.The founding of clinical psychology centres was impeded by the lack of support from academic psychologists.The psychology departments were dominated by experimental psychologists, who wanted to promote psychology as a scienceThe academics did not want to upset their medical colleagues, whose help they needed for the expansion of their departments.In the meantime mental health problems and psychoanalysis became popular courses in psychology.Clinical psychology: branch of psychology applying psychological knowledge to the assessment and treatment of mental...

Lees verder over How did psychology affect everyday life? - summary of chapter 8 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

What is science? - summary of chapter 9 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of psychologyChapter 9What is science? Science’s claim of superiority was based on four principlesRealism:There is a physical world with independent objects, which can be understood by human intellectObjectivity:Knowledge of the physical world does not depend on the observer.‘Objective’ agreement among people is possible, irrespective of their worldviews.Science aims to uncover this knowledge so that it becomes public, verifiable and useableTruthScientific statements are true when they correspond to the physical realityRationalityTruth is guaranteed because scientific statements are based on sound method. Thoughts before the scientific revolution Plato, Aristotle and the sceptics PlatoA strong rationalist view of knowledge acquisition.Human perception was fallible and the observable world was only a shadow of the Real world.The human soul had innate knowledge of the universe, which could be harnessedAristotleMore scope for observation and made a distinction between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.True, theoretical knowledge started from axioms, form which new knowledge was deduced via so-called demonstrations.Perception was the source of information but not knowledge itself.Correspondence theory of truth: a statement is...

Lees verder over What is science? - summary of chapter 9 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Is psychology a science? - summary of chapter 10 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of psychologyChapter 10Is psychology a science? The foundation of psychology as an academic discipline was legitimised on two pillars Psychology has a long, respectful past and uses the scientific method Steven WardMakes the case that a new branch of knowledge can establish itself and survive only if it succeeds in convincing the ruling powers of the need for such knowledge as well as reassuring them that it is no threat to their prosperity.The founders of psychology promoted it as a new academic discipline by stressing two messagesPsychology was the continuation of the old and respectful tradition of mental and morel philosophy, going back to AristotleThe new element was the scientific method, so successful in other disciplines, would be applied to the study of the human mindConsequences for the psychology curriculum Because psychology was promoted on the basis of its long past and its sound method, both ‘history of psychology’ and ‘research methods’ were major components of the curriculum.These books on history were self-legitimisation as much as essential stepping stones for a good psychology education.Science is defined by its method rather than by its subject matter Every topic studied within the scientific method is a science To be accepted as a science, psychologists had to make the case that what differentiated sciences from non-sciences was the way in which problems were investigated, and not the type of problems addressed.Although few...

Lees verder over Is psychology a science? - summary of chapter 10 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

The contribution of quantitative and qualitative research methods - summary of chapter 11 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of psychologyChapter 11The contribution of quantitative and qualitative research methods Quantitative research methods: research methods based on quantifiable data; are associated with the natural-science approach based on the hypothetico-deductive method.Assumptions underlying quantitative research methods There is an outside reality that can be discovered Quantitative psychologists start from the assumption that phenomena in the world have an existence outside people’s minds.They defend the idea that humans can discover reality by using the scientific method.They are well aware of the fact that science is not a linear accumulation of facts but proceeds through trial and error. But are convinced that in the long term the scientific method based on the hypothetico-deductive model leads to an understanding of reality → scientific knowledge is cumulativeThe main aim of scientific research is to find universal causal relationships Researchers are primarily interested in discovering relationships between causes and effects.How general are principles? And how do humans function?Ideally they hope the mechanisms they discover will apply to all humans.Trying to avoid confounds and sources of noise Users of quantitative research methods are extremely vigilant about the possible intrusion of undesired factors into their designs.They try to maximally control the circumstances under which they run their studiesThey also try to eliminate the impact of...

Lees verder over The contribution of quantitative and qualitative research methods - summary of chapter 11 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Psychology and society - summary of chapter 13 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundation of psychologyChapter 13Psychology and society Science overtakes religion in Western society Initial strong links between psychological thinking and religion Psychology as a separate branch of knowledge grew out of the rising role of scientific thinking in Western society.Education for a long time was controlled by the churches, which did not look favourably upon those who tried to examine the soul.Many early psychologists had strong connections with religion.Alliance formation with the expanding sciences Rapidly, the experimental psychologists distanced themselves from religion, because it jeopardies their scientific credentials.They sought to align themselves with the rapidly growing natural sciences, by denouncing weaker fields that might contaminate them, such as religion, philosophy, and sociology.Psychologists replace pastors Fewer people felt comfortable discussing their mental health problems with religious authorities.Whereas for a long time churches were the first port to call for mental health problems, growing secularisation increased the need for non-religious counselling.At the same time, a growing number of clergy started to study psychology to improve the help they were able to provide.Changes in society impinge on psychological practice Impact on psychological research The massive changes in the organisation of Western society in the nineteenth and twentieth century generated ideas and research opportunities for psychologists.Six...

Lees verder over Psychology and society - summary of chapter 13 of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Historical Psychology

This is a magazine about the history of psychology

Lees verder over Historical Psychology

All the interim summaries of the first half of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

The invention of writingFeatures of the preliterate civilisation:Knowledge confined to know-how without theoretical knowledge of the underlying principlesFluidity of knowledgeCollection of myths and stories about the beginning of the universe (animism)Written language appeared separately in at least four cultures, in each case it was preceded by proto-writingWriting consists of a combination of pictograms and phonogramsWritten records form an external memory, which allows an accumulation of knowledgeFor a long time the number of readers was limited. In addition, they were not encouraged to think critically about what they were reading (scholastic method)The discovery of numbers Knowledge depends on counting and measuring. The first written forms of counting consisted of lines (tallies) in the bones and stonesBecause it is difficult to discern more than four lines in a glance, the tallies were grouped. The grouping usually occurred in fivesGradually a separate symbol was used for five and multiples of fiveLater numbers systems were based on multiples of 10Number names indicate that the intention of numbers was a slow process; it took quite some time before a useful system was discoveredThe Greek and Roman number systems were suboptimal because their notation did not assign a meaning to the place of digits. Such a place coding system was developed in India. This required the symbol for 0.The Fertile Crescent Civilisations in the Fertile crescent:Ancient Mesopotamia: mathematics (algebra, astronomy, calendar)Ancient Egypt: geometrical knowledge, calendar, hieroglyphsThe Greeks Ancient Greece was the birthplace of philosophy and...

Lees verder over All the interim summaries of the first half of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

All the interim summaries of the second half of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Introduction Mind-brain problem: issue of how the mind is related to the brain.Three main viewsDualismThe mind (or soul) is something independent of the bodyMaterialismThe mind is nothing but a by-product of the biological processes taking place in a particular brain.FunctionalismThe mind is indeed realised in a brain, but it could be copied in any other brain.Just like information on a computer can be copied to other computersDualism The mind refers to a person’s faculties to perceive, feel, think, remember and wantIn religions the mind is often equated with an immaterial, divine soul. This is an example of dualism. A similar view was defended by Descartes and, therefore, in philosophy is often called Cartesian dualismDualism is an intuitively attractive model of the mind-brain relationship because it gives humans free will and it readily accounts for the existence of consciousness in humans. The latter refers to the rich and coherent, private, first-person experience people have about themselves and the world around them.Dualism does have problems explaining how an immaterial mind can influence the body, and how it is possible that so much information processing in humans occurs unconsciously. It also does not agree with a scientific world view, where there is no place for mysterious and animistic substances.Materialism Materialism holds that there is no distinction between the mind and the brain, and that the mind is a direct consequence of the brain in operation. To make the distinction with functionalism clear, we take this to imply that the mind is linked to the specific brain in which it has been realisedAccording to the...

Lees verder over All the interim summaries of the second half of Historical and conceptual issues in psychology, by Brysbaert, M and Rastle, K (second edition)

Foundations of psychology

In this magazine, you can find the summaries you need to finish the course foundations of psychology in the second year of the study psychology at the uva.