Psychological communication: theories, roles and skills for counsellors - Molen, Lang, Trower, Look (2014 edition) - Summary (Template)

What is psychological conversation? - Chapter 1

Helping people with personal problems is not easy. Sometimes someone cannot be helped and sometimes help is not appreciated. However, people with problems can often be helped. But how can you best help people?

First of all, it is necessary to obtain a clear picture of the important role that conversations play in providing assistance. The purpose of these conversations is an important aspect. What does the counselor have in mind? What does he want to achieve and why? What are views about human functioning?

Secondly, the skills with regard to interviewing the counselor are important. The better these skills are, the better someone can be helped.  

Insight into the above background means that the care provider's own behavior and its influence on the person asking for help becomes clear, so that the care provider can choose his own views and possibly change them.   This is especially interesting for professional social workers in training. However, there are other people who could benefit from it, such as teachers, study counselors, etc.

If conversations between care providers and people with a problem make sense, then the people with problems must be able to reason. A condition for the success of conversations in providing assistance is therefore also that these people are accountable. In addition, there must be a certain trust between the dependent and the social worker. Finally, it is important that the discussion ultimately focuses on the possibilities for finding a solution to the problems, not least by those who suffer from the problems.

Which attitude suits a care provider? - Chapter 2

There are different ways to have a conversation with a person who has a problem. The different methods raise all kinds of questions. How should the counselor deal with the person in question? At what angle should solutions be sought? The answers to these questions are not neutral; Both the counselor and the person with a problem have certain norms and values ​​that influence the solution of the problem. The counselor will have to make a personal choice with regard to the way in which he will deal with his client and which method of interviewing he will use. It is important to keep in mind what he wants to achieve.   In the rest of this text we make a comparison between the 'attitude' of the relatives, relatives and friends of the person asking for help, and the 'attitude' of professional care providers. We use Michiel's case for this.

What problem arises with help from loved ones?

Michiel has a problem with his studies. He has achieved a few unsatisfactory marks and cannot concentrate well. He has only just started his studies. Michiel seeks advice from a new friend because he does not know whether he should stop his studies or continue. His friend gives him a positive advice. He says that Michiel has to put the flowers outside and then go back to it.   Both people have different interests in the above conversation. Michiel does not want to come across as a pessimist and hesitantly tries to present his problem. His friend himself does not want to get too involved with Michiel's problem and wants to support him. He opts for a positive approach. Since this council offers no help, Michiel addresses his parents. His father in particular would rather not stop. Bite through and overcome setbacks are of paramount importance to his father. He doesn't want his son to fail. The father, however, points to his dear son's own responsibility. The father does not want his son to be unsuccessful. His self-interest and the love for his son play a role in this. Because of this he does not listen well to Michiel.   A problem with the help of relatives is that both the dependent and the neighbor take too much account of each other, so that it is not always possible to talk freely. The purpose of this excerpt is to show that people often seek to downplay problems (weaken, make them appear smaller than it really is) in their own interest or in the interest of another. This also shows that it can be difficult to solve a problem in this way.

What attitudes can the caregiver take?

The counselor can take different positions, depending on the type of conversation.   When there is a diagnosis-prescription interview, the counselor asks many questions and the client often gives short, concrete answers. In such a conversation, the counselor - in the case of Michiel - must think that a psychologist does not take the full initiative, but also gives the client the space to tell his story. Based on the diagnosis that the care provider makes, the care provider comes up with a recipe for solving the problems. The disadvantage, however, is that often insufficient account is taken of personal preferences and individual norms and values.   The second method that the counselor can choose relates to the collaboration model. With this method the care provider works more closely with the client in the search for a solution. More reliance is placed on the client's independence and sense of responsibility. It is the caregiver's job to get as close as possible to the client's world and to actively involve them in the process. Sometimes a client opposes this cooperation model and indicates that he or she only wants to receive advice. Often a negotiating situation follows, in which the wishes of the client and the possibilities of the care provider have to be coordinated.

What is meant by a refined care provider?

When a counselor tries to empathize with the situation of a client and approaches him as a fellow person, that does not mean that he or she is not professionally involved in his or her profession at the same time. The counselor certainly tries to steer the client so that he or she gains new insights and different solutions. However, the counselor tries to do this in such a way that the person in need of help is working on his problem. Often a client knows that the counselor sometimes chooses to mislead the client when this is in the client's interest. On the one hand, the client is manipulated by the counselor, on the other hand, the client usually knows that this opportunity is present. This is also called quasi-manipulation. This quasi-manipulation plays an important role in the way of cooperation. The rescuer can choose for himself whether or not to show this form of manipulation.

What is meant by the 'client-centered' method? - Chapter 3

In addition to the correct posture, the counselor also needs other aids to help the person with a problem. One of these tools is a system that makes it possible to rank and understand what is being told. The counselor can use certain ways that ensure that the client himself cooperates in solving his problem. Moreover, he needs theories that can give him a better picture of the client and can provide a clear picture of the problems.

What does Rogers theory say?

One of the central topics in Rogers' theory is self-actualization. Self-actualization is the urge of a person to continue to develop. Self-actualization is mainly formed by the perception of an individual. Only if the circumstances are favorable will a person be able to develop well and the quality of the world of experience will be experienced as good by that person. Favorable circumstances for this are circumstances in which a person from the moment he is born is accepted without conditions as he is, receives love and feels safe and free. According to Rogers, the environment therefore plays an important role.   The problems arise when a person is only accepted if he has to meet certain conditions. Acceptance, love, freedom and safety then become a reward for adjusted and 'better' behavior. The greater this adjusted behavior must be, the greater the problems will become. In this case, Rogers uses the concept of 'incongruence'. This means that a person no longer dares to trust himself with regard to his behavior, but adapts his behavior to his environment. The person is usually unaware of his adjusted behavior; the adjusted behavior is internalized. Because the accepted standards are imposed and these do not erase the original ideas and behaviors, but do influence them, a person gets confused and becomes tense. It can also lead to a defensive attitude towards others. Moreover, there is a danger that a person will not dare to show characteristics of his personality.

Which method fits this?

How should a social worker respond to this? The answer is simple: it must ensure that the quality of the self-actualization process is restored. He does this by acting in such a way that the behavior and norms of the most important figures from the social circle of the client are settled. This means in the first place that the counselor unconditionally accepts the client as he is and does not condemn deviant behavior.   Secondly, the counselor must get a good and honest relationship with the client. This also means that he is honest with himself in relation to the person with a problem. For example, a counselor may find a client disgusted. He does not, of course, have to report this, but must acknowledge it and must be able to handle it. Rogers considers this 'authenticity' or honesty an important theme.   When the client is unconditionally accepted, the counselor can make a better representation of the client's world of experience. Rogers calls this imagination empathy . Empathy is the ability of someone to empathize with someone else's world of experience and at the same time to keep their feet firmly on the ground. It is important that the counselor shows this. Showing understanding of the problems can lead to a better understanding between the caregiver and the client. He will feel freer and more at ease.   Rogers' client-oriented approach assumes that the person with a problem can best find a solution himself. That is why the person with the problem is central and the empathy is important. The care provider must therefore be cautious. Showing the empathy should result in the client gaining enlightening insights. After all, the counselor does not say anything fundamentally different from the client. He must above all clarify and nuance.

What are the comments on Rogers?

Rogers assumes that a person can constantly develop. If the circumstances are good, people will be able to develop according to their own standards. His positive image of mankind has caused quite a bit of criticism. In the first place, psychologists in particular think that ideas about individual development are too positive. Some psychologists emphasize that especially the learning process of an individual must be encouraged and corrected during his development. Stimulating behavioral changes is also echoed in the assistance. After all, recognizing problems appears not to be sufficient for solving problems.   Rogers' theory is not suitable for everyone. The theory assumes that people can think well, articulate problems well and, moreover, can convert knowledge into action, so into the desired behavioral change. Many people do not have the abovementioned skills, such as children. Rogers' theory does not work with these people.   Another form of criticism goes into the view that people are naturally good. However, goodness is determined by society. Sometimes a person needs to be corrected if his behavior is rejected by society. Moreover, a correction can also have a positive influence on development; a person develops only partially if he only gets freedom.   Cognitive psychology became important in the 1970s. Cognitive psychology is the science that deals with the way people record, process and use information. One can influence this process. This is important in providing assistance. Rogers' theory pays little attention to the cognitive process. This is also referred to as a lack of directivity. The cognitive-psychological knowledge can be used to point out the client's confused thinking and behavior patterns. A client can use this knowledge to change his thoughts and behavior.   Nevertheless, some essential characteristics of his method have been recognized. The good relationship between the care provider and the client is an important characteristic. Many problems arise from poor contact with people. Good contact with the care provider shows that things can also be done differently. Understanding the client and showing this understanding is also seen as an important feature.

A cognitive theory about experience

The caregiver's goal is to increase the quality of the client's world of experience. He does this by creating a climate in which the client can develop better. Rogers is not particularly clear about this. A comparison can be made with a plant. Give a plant the right nutrition, water and light and the plant grows to what it would become in an ideal situation. Is this also the case with a human being?   Wexler addresses this issue. He thinks that people have an urge to develop both physically and mentally. The spiritual development is partly shaped by the process of experience. Unlike Rogers, Wexler believes that this process of experience is an active process. Man is actively involved in the selection and organization of information and gives meaning to what he experiences. Humans focus their attention on specific observations. Otherwise a person would be overwhelmed by the amount of information. After this ordering and selection of information, the information is stored in the memory. Humans make use of a number of rules that themselves also form part of the memory.   The individual experience process means that every person interprets certain information differently. This process can be influenced. Language plays an important role in the process of selection and ordering. By articulating problems, for example, they often become clearer and you can list them. Secondly, differentiation and integration play an important role. In this case, differentiation means the development of meaning that leads to a more nuanced picture. For example, a person may think that he is always alone while meeting people at the billiard club twice a week.   If he is aware of that, he has a more nuanced picture. Integration in this case means that people make a whole of the observed information. In short: through differentiation you get a more nuanced picture and through integration you make connections between the information. Normally this process runs smoothly. However, problems may arise if someone is unable to properly process, interpret and organize the information. The care provider must then influence this process and ensure that it runs better.

What role do feelings play in cognitive-psychological development? Feelings are important in Rogers' theory. Being open to feelings plays an important role. Man does not have to worry about his feelings; the feelings naturally come to the surface. Wexler, on the other hand, believes that feelings are related to a person's cognitive-psychological development process. According to him, feelings are related to the perception and processing of information. Examples of information that influences the client's feelings are conversations about the person, (sudden) changes in the world of experience and new insights into the old world of experience. Through his conversations with the client about these topics, the counselor will evoke emotions in him. The counselor must take into account that these emotions do not become too intense; the client can become distraught. It is therefore essential that someone is receptive to his feelings.   After that, the care provider can possibly initiate a change process at the person asking for help. This brings us to a theory that is important to the question of how behavioral change can be achieved: the theory of social learning.

What does the social learning theory consist of? - Chapter 4

People have learned their ways of organizing and experiencing, it is important that it is clear to the counselor how someone learned that. Rogers emphasizes the growth process in people; With regard to helping people, Wexler emphasizes the change in the process of ordering and interpreting information, while forgetting that it is difficult for people to change their behavior. People must learn this. The social-learning theoretical vision examines this learning process.

What interaction exists between person, environment and behavior?

According to social learning theory, humans can develop in a large number of ways within biologically determined limits. In addition to this natural determination, the person is also influenced by his own behavior and his environment. So there is an interaction between the person, the environment and his behavior. This triangular relationship has been worked out by Bandura. The influence of these three determining factors is relative. Sometimes the environment will be the determining factor; another time the person himself will be dominant with regard to the process of development. The care provider must therefore take all factors into account.   What role do characteristics of human character play in the above-mentioned triangular relationship? These properties are often influenced. In general, cognitive and intellectual functions, the notion of abstract issues and the ability to solve problems are relatively independent of the situation and the environment. These stable properties are called the genotype properties. In the social field, however, functioning is strongly related to the situation. The environment influences these properties. These noticeable characteristics are placed under the name 'phenotype'.   Assigning character traits and giving meaning to people and events is dealt with in the so-called attribution theory. This theory assumes that people use simple ideas to make the world understandable. People also have these simple ideas about others, in the form of types and stereotypes. Characteristics are often assigned based on appearance. A fat person is often described as pleasant. Another misunderstanding is the assignment of too great a significant role to the situation. A person uses the excuse: "I wasn't myself." Also, if he wants to explain the behavior of others, he can make too much use of stable personality traits. Assigning properties deserves the necessary nuance.   So so-called attribution errors can be made.   It is important to distinguish between the situation and the psychological situation : the psychological situation is always the environment, as perceived and processed by the person who gives it his own subjective interpretation.

How do people learn behavior?

People learn most things from others. People learn new behavior by observing and imitating others. In English this is called 'modeling'. Learning on the basis of an example does not only relate to actions, but also to thinking. People can store the observed behavior in their memory and may or may not use it. For this form of learning to be successful, someone must first focus their attention on the behavior to be learned. Only then can he perceive it correctly. Moreover, someone must be able to highlight the most important elements. Thirdly, it is important that a person is motivated. A person must then also be able to remember the observations. Finally, someone must also be able to apply the perceived knowledge. One can see an example, but this does not mean that one can imitate the example. Transforming knowledge into an action requires practice. These exercises often show that people have not mastered certain things. That is why it is important that the person who has to learn something has additional information, and someone nearby who can correct the person where necessary.   Learning by consequences is another way in which people learn behavior. When behavior has a positive effect, this behavior will be repeated. If behavior has a negative effect, then this behavior will be repeated less often or this behavior will no longer be shown. This is a point that has to do with the interpretation of events. Sometimes someone does not mean something negative, but it is understood that way. It is often clear in society what the consequences are for a certain type of behavior. These clear consequences are related to cognitive processes. The function of these consequences is to regulate behavior.

Which influences regulate behavior?

The most important factor in regulating behavior is the person himself. Because of the experiences he has, he expects his actions to have certain consequences. These expectations have a major influence on behavior. The experiences are gained through the ordering and interpretation of the facts, the actions, and the consequences thereof. Expectations can also arise because others tell about their experiences.   The anticipation of possible consequences leads, among other things, to the avoidance of situations. This avoidance behavior can put people in a vicious circle, such as people who develop a fear of people because they have bad experiences with people.   This fear ensures that the person can no longer make good contacts and therefore the person can no longer have good experiences. In such a situation it is important that the counselor corrects the client and questions the expectations.   The expectations can be influenced. According to Bandura, a distinction can be made between the so-called efficiency expectation and the result expectation. The result expectation is the expectation of a person that certain forms of behavior will generally have a positive effect. The effectiveness expectation is the conviction of a person that he himself is able to display the behavior that will have a positive effect. In particular, the belief in one's own effectiveness enables people to do difficult things. One can influence this effectiveness expectation in different ways:

1. Experiencing success leads to confidence in effectiveness. By being successful in a certain area, one also gets the expectation that one can get success in a related area.

2. Seeing other people who manage a difficult task without adverse consequences has a positive effect on the result. This in turn has a positive effect on the efficiency expectation. The person must feel somewhat related to the example. If this is not the case, it can even be demotivating.

3. One can use persuasiveness to positively influence someone. However, this method is not very successful.

4. Emotional arousal affects the effectiveness expectation. The lack of tension leads to lifelessness; Excessive tension leads to nervousness and anxiety.

5. Situation-related factors also influence the efficiency expectation. For example, the employee will request a free afternoon earlier than a shredding week, because the chance of success is greater.

Self-regulation

The preceding paragraphs focused primarily on environmental factors that influence behavior. However, it is the person himself who determines his behavior. Targeted practice of new behavior is important. People mainly choose the standards to which they behave. In other words: people regulate their behavior themselves. The process of self-regulation has different characteristics. In the first place, a person can have a goal in mind. This is called the norm. When the goal is achieved, the person gives himself a reward. This reward plays a role in self-motivation.   Another characteristic of the process of self-regulation is the assessment of behavior. People assess their own performance according to their own standards and in comparison with others. One can also compare oneself with oneself; for example, the person compares his performance with that of a year ago. Characteristic of the western world is the notion of many people that their performance must increase.   Self-regulation is mainly determined by the actions and reactions of others. The more important someone is to someone else, the greater his influence is on that person. People can therefore also be influenced by an example. Young people in particular imitate the people who are important to them. Parents, trainers, but also sports heroes and pop stars have an exemplary role. Children in particular adopt the standards of the people who are important to them. They also learn that it is good to reach the standard and that it is bad not to meet it. If one has set too high a standard, then one can have a negative self-image.

What is the influence of the ideal image?

Too high an ideal image and too high expectations with regard to performance can become a torment. They can lead to a sense of failure and a person can therefore find themselves a worthless figure. The trust is then far to be found. People can then look for a way out in fantasies. Sometimes they blame the outside world for their situation. The result is that such people find it increasingly difficult to find their way in society. The ideal image will have to be 'lowered'. This requires great skill. People will take this as a decline. The caregiver will have to make it clear to the person that a step less is not worse. However, this requires a different way of thinking from the client.

What goals, roles and models of conversations are there? - Chapter 5

The counselor can use psychological interviewing theories to provide help. However, he cannot use the theories randomly. He needs a plan. First of all, he must have a goal in mind and he must assume a role to achieve that goal. To get and maintain a clear picture of the goal and the role, he can use a conversation model. Below, goals, roles and discussion models are discussed.

What is the use of clear goals?

A conversation can often have a chaotic course. This is not desirable in the emergency services. The conversation must go well. A conversation goes well if it can contribute to achieving the goal, that is, solving the problem. However, the problem can also be vague. A distinction can then be made between the objective that relates to the process of assistance and the objective that indicates the consequences of the assistance. The counselor uses the process goals to achieve the ultimate goal, that is, solving the problems.   The process goals will in many cases be the same in the beginning. The counselor can do little but listen. After a while the care provider will want to give direction to the process. He will then have to formulate process goals. He does not have to do this alone; he can also involve the client. The product goal, that is, solving the problems, is mainly determined by the client. It is important that the client is aware of this; it contributes to his motivation. The product goal must be acceptable. If this is not the case, the counselor must correct the client.

The care provider and the client therefore jointly choose the process goals and the product goals (although the client mainly chooses these last goals). Acceptability and choosing the ways To achieve these goals, the social worker and client are jointly responsible. They will have to be flexible in this. These goals are necessary for a good and clear progress of the conversation. The counselor may encounter certain cycles when solving problems. The problems will first have to be formulated. Subsequently, proposals can be made that should help solve the problem. After that, people will have to think about the possible consequences of the measures. This is called evaluation at the thinking level. If this evaluation is positive, then a plan can be made in which the action is central. Then action is taken. Finally, the evaluation about the implementation of the plan follows. This cycle can be repeated following the entire process.During the evaluation one can find out where the bottlenecks are if the goal is not achieved or stagnates.

What roles can a social worker take on?

The counselor can show the client different types of behavior. This behavior must make assistance easier and more effective. Four types are covered in the following paragraphs.

The confidant

According to Rogers, peace and trust between the care provider and the client is important. Especially at the start of a conversation it is important that the counselor listens and shows understanding. As a result, the client is more likely to talk freely about his problems. Wexler also finds the role of confidential adviser a good one. According to him, trust has an important function in the process of differentiation and integration. If someone wants to adjust their behavior and their cognitive process, then they must have faith; the confidence that the counselor gives him will contribute to this. There are many ways in which people can win and give trust. The correct way depends on the person and the situation in which he finds himself. When a client is very uncertain about expressing his problem,then the counselor can start on a lighter subject, for example, and if a client is very nervous, then bringing peace is important. Proper social interaction with the client requires a lot from the counselor. There are a few other reasons for a reluctant attitude. A restrained attitude not only allows the client to deal with the problem himself, but this attitude also gives the counselor a better picture of the client's world of experience. Finally, a reluctant institution does not lead to a too rapid assessment.A restrained attitude not only allows the client to deal with the problem himself, but this attitude also gives the counselor a better picture of the client's world of experience. Finally, a reluctant institution does not lead to a too rapid assessment.A restrained attitude not only allows the client to deal with the problem himself, but this attitude also gives the counselor a better picture of the client's world of experience. Finally, a reluctant institution does not lead to a too rapid assessment.

The candid detective

Sometimes a client only needs a trusted person. He is able to solve his problem himself. Unfortunately this is often not the case. The counselor can then take on the role of detective. He must actively look for the way in which the client organizes and experiences his world. What causes the problems? How does the client select his information? What nuances does the client bring and how does he integrate knowledge into his world view? It can happen that someone makes few nuances to his worldview. New information is quickly integrated into the existing world of experience. One speaks of too little differentiation and too rapid integration. The client then probably experiences the world in an unambiguous way. This can lead to listlessness, a notion of meaninglessness and depression. The reverse also occurs.Some people see too many nuances and simply cannot make a well-arranged whole. They can no longer list things. This can lead to confusion, fear and great uncertainty. In this role, the counselor must also look into the client's environment for possible causes of the problems. By asking about his environment, the counselor also learns more about the client's world of experience.By asking about his environment, the counselor also learns more about the client's world of experience.By asking about his environment, the counselor also learns more about the client's world of experience.

The counselor must ask the right questions and receive correct data about this environment. The counselor does not benefit from vague answers about the client's environment, behavior and thoughts. Clear questions offer the best outcome. This clarity also applies to the care provider; he must be frank and tell what is going on inside him. This can contribute to a good contact and it can motivate the client. Through this openness, he can also provide the client with new solutions and new insights. 

The teacher

If the counselor has played his role as a detective well, then he has found a number of leads that can contribute to the solution of the problem. How does the counselor tell this in a diplomatic way? After all, the client can feel attacked because his world view is being affected. The counselor must become a teacher. He will have to explain the information in such a way that the client will consider this knowledge. However, the client will not want to change his world of experience quickly. The counselor must find out which influences stand in the way of this change. On the other hand, the counselor must also consult with himself whether he himself is not too rigid with regard to his ideas about the client.

The coach

The counselor can choose the role of coach if the client is able to do something about his problems based on conversations and new insights. Just like with a sports coach and an athlete, the client will have to do the work. The coach can give him instructions in advance and receive him afterwards. The results are then analyzed. Errors are corrected and new strategies are devised. New goals may be set. Here too, the counselor must be cautious. The client should not be forced, but must be helped with difficult points. The client must also be confident in this phase. The result expectation and the effectiveness expectation will have to be more or less in balance with each other. If this is not the case, the coach will have to train the client in the desired behavior.It is important that the client does not face major failures. Failure will make the problem worse. However, if the client is successful, this can lead to reactions from his social environment. The changes in behavior can provoke positive and negative responses. These experiences will also have to be discussed. Optionally, the entire process can be repeated and the counselor becomes a confidential person again.Optionally, the entire process can be repeated and the counselor becomes a confidential person again.Optionally, the entire process can be repeated and the counselor becomes a confidential person again.   The roles mentioned above naturally have overlaps with each other and complement each other. For legibility, a distinction is made between different roles. The counselor must shape the various roles and integrate them with each other.

What is an example of a conversation model?

A social worker can use a conversation model. A conversation model provides guidance for the counselor. The following model focuses on three elements. These elements are: the problem clarification, the problem nuance and the problem handling. Goals and tasks are always given in the model.

The problem clarification

The purpose of the problem clarification is to obtain a clearer picture of the problems. This is a goal for the client and the caregiver. It is the task of the counselor to gain and give confidence, to formulate ideas for himself and to ensure that the conversation runs smoothly. The client has the task to put his problem into words and to state the facts and events that play a role in this.

The problem nuance

The goal for the caregiver is to come to a clear view of the problems. Moreover, he must get a more nuanced picture. This is also the goal for the client. His sub goal is to learn to think differently. It is up to the caregiver to come to an overview by listening carefully, arranging information and nuancing the view of the client's problem. The client again has the task to address his problems and the task to take the information from the care provider and not to ignore this information.

The problem handling

The goal for the counselor is to set the goals and choose an action program. The goal for the client is to choose and set the goals that should be achieved and to achieve those goals. The duties for the counselor are: offering options and drawing up a program. The tasks for the client are: deciding which problems need to be solved and with what goals, implementing the program and reporting the experiences.

How does this work in practice?

The application of a conversation model is a different story; in practice they are not defined phases; but the phases run together and sometimes they start again. Different themes will be discussed alternately in the different steps to be distinguished. The model can offer both client and caregiver help with clarity. The model is furthermore means; no purpose. It is essential that the model is not the basis. The ultimate goal is to solve the problems. The model can provide guidelines here, but if necessary phases in the model can be skipped and / or repeated.

What other qualities does a social worker have to meet?

The counselor must be 'happy in his own skin' in order to be able to help others and to apply a conversation model properly. He must be able to look at himself critically and use distance and perspective when needed. Rogers talks about a "good person" and sets the following conditions to the care provider:

1. Acceptance

2. Authenticity

3. Empathy

The question also arises as to whether a social worker should be a distanced person or an involved person. There is no clear answer to this. The guideline is: "work in such a way that you as a person stay healthy". In short, find a healthy middle ground between distance and involvement. The same applies to distrust towards trust.

Overview

The intention is to provide more insight into the counseling process through step-by-step theoretical substantiation of the interview model. There are summarized, systematic overviews. The creativity of the counselor and the dynamics of a counseling process cannot, however, be captured in a diagram.

What general skills does a social worker need? - Chapter 6

A professional care provider must be able to choose from his behavioral positions after having learned a few things. There is often a big difference between science and the care provider in the pipeline how to behave and the practical application thereof. One can divide skills into listening and regulatory skills. The listening skills can in turn be divided into 'non-selective listening skills (actually impossible not to perform) and selective listening skills. The 'non'-selective variant is understood to mean the non-verbal behavior, the careful following of the conversation and the use of moments where nothing is said. Selective listening is understood to mean asking questions, reproducing the information given in one's own words, stimulating precise answers and summarizing. Regulatory skills, on the other hand, relate to the opening of the conversation, the formulation of goals, making agreements about goals,clarifying the situation and concluding the conversation. These skills coincide with the phases of problem clarification, problem nuance and problem handling.

How does the social worker start?

First of all, the counselor must make clear what the usual course of events is, so that the client knows what to expect. The counselor must explain what his way of working is. The caregiver cannot do this if the client is completely confused. However, if the client is not particularly confused, the counselor can explain how he works and can make some suggestions. If the client agrees with these proposals, then both can start using these agreements. If the client does not agree with the proposals, a different way of working must be found. Because of the structure that the counselor introduces in the beginning, the client will also get more clarity. Some practical issues will also have to be discussed in the beginning; such as the costs and duration of the calls.If both parties know what they can expect, an initial contract can be made.

Which 'non'-selective listening skills are important?

Being able to listen to someone properly is a profession in itself. One must show interest without interrupting too much. One has to listen carefully, but not lose sight of the role of caregiver. The caregiver must also keep his attention focused on his profession. In addition to listening, non-verbal behavior is another important aspect. This behavior has a lot of influence on communication between people. The facial expression is one of the most important forms of non-verbal behavior. For example, a smile can express interest and a sense of consent and a frown will rather express antipathy and disapproval. However, frowning can also mean that the counselor understands the client, for example, if the counselor is frowning because the client is telling something incredible.   The different facial expressions therefore have different meanings at different times. The rescuer can choose to manipulate his facial expression. He must be careful that he does not do this too much. As a result, he may lose his attention and the client may think that he is not being taken seriously. Eye contact also plays a very important role. Lack of eye contact by the health care professional could indicate that they are not involved. Excessive eye contact could lead to a feeling of discomfort. Finally, the body language plays a significant role. A relaxed body posture is the best posture. It can contribute to the client will feel calmer. Gestures that encourage the client such as encouraging nods to the head are also desirable.

A verbal way to pay attention is to follow what the client has to say. The counselor does not try to steer the client, but tries to stick to the client's storyline. In addition, the counselor tries to encourage the client, among other things by giving short verbal responses, such as 'like that' and by asking specific questions. The response from the counselor is in line with the client's story. It is also important at this stage that the counselor uses silences. The client is then given the time to 'dig up' information and process information. However, silence can also indicate the fear of continuing to talk. For example, the counselor can ask why the client is silent and can make the silence negotiable.Finally, silences and stammering can point to important issues related to the problem.

Which selective listening skills are important?

Asking questions is the most important part of selective listening. You can ask questions about anything. The counselor will proceed selectively with regard to asking questions. Does he comment on the situation or does he emphasize the client's inner self? Which questions are correct and which are not? In the first place, questions can be divided into open questions and closed questions. Open questions offer the client the initiative. "How are you?" Is an example of this. There are also open questions that offer less space. "How do you intend to solve the problems?" Is a question that already gives more direction to an answer. A distinction can also be made between open questions that respond directly to what the client has said and open questions that deviate from it.With the help of the latter variant you can broach a new topic.   Closed questions are questions that can only be confirmed or denied. An example: "I have been so active lately," the client says. "Is that because you no longer take sleeping pills?" Asks the counselor. This is an example of a suggestive question. One can also make the question less compelling: "Could it possibly be that you might use your sleeping tablets a little less?" Closed questions have disadvantages. They already give direction to the answers, so that the client is limited in providing information. Moreover, it is possible that the client takes less and less initiative. He no longer feels responsible for and involved in the conversation. Closed questions have the advantage that they provide concrete information and are sometimes experienced as less threatening.This is particularly true at the start of a conversation.

Another skill with regard to selective listening is to display important information of the client in his own words, the so-called paraphrasing. This must take place during the interview. In this way, the client realizes that his information is not aimed at deaf ears. Some language skills is a condition. Repeating the client's words can make the client feel ridiculed. Secondly, the counselor can check whether he has understood the client. Thirdly, the paraphrase can give the client more clarity.   The caregiver can also give a reflection of the feeling. The counselor then tries to empathize with the client's emotional world and expresses this understanding. He then focuses less on content. In counseling, people talk about two types of feelings: single feelings and multiple feelings. Single feelings are clear, positive or negative emotions. One is angry or one is cheerful. Multiple feelings are much more complicated. All kinds of emotions can run together. For example, one can be ashamed, happy and anxious. When paraphrasing the content and reflecting the feeling, it is important that the response of the counselor has about the same intensity as the words of the client. If the client says, "Things are getting better," one cannot respond with:"So you see life completely again!" The counselor must feel for himself when he responds to the client's feelings.   Another important skill with regard to problem solving is the 'realization'. The counselor must let the client tell the problem precisely and concretely. The techniques mentioned in the previous paragraphs can contribute to making the problems concrete. Examples of specific questions are: Which events are important? What behavior does the client display within the context of the circumstances? How do others respond to this? What are the thoughts of the clients? What preceded these events? Finally, the care provider must summarize the information.

What is the purpose of regulation?

The purpose of regulation is to maintain order and overview. One way of regulating is to return to the goals that were set at the beginning of the conversation. Often these goals will be sub goals. After all, people often work via sub-goals towards the main goal, solving the problem. If a sub-goal is not achieved, one can take a step back or come up with a new sub-goal. In this way you work step by step on solving the problem and you maintain an orderly situation.   Another regulatory skill is clarifying the situation. This means that the care provider intervenes if the conversation or the mutual relationship leads to misunderstandings or ambiguities. The counselor must constantly view the conversation and the mutual relationship 'from a distance'. The counselor keeps track of this meta-conversation.

Thinking out loud is also a form of regulation. The openness will in many cases contribute to a smoother course of the conversation. This is partly because the mutual relationship improves. The client hears the counselor thinking and therefore finds him a little more human. In many cases it also leads to more clarity. Moreover, thinking aloud has an exemplary function. The client learns something from the therapist's thinking steps.   Finally, the counselor must close the conversation. There are different ways to end a conversation. You can briefly summarize the conversation and then agree how to proceed. One can also ask what the client found important in the conversation. You can also have a short conversation about the conversation. Sometimes it happens that a client starts talking about his problem when the time is up. There is even a term for this: the doorknob phenomenon. The counselor would do well to listen briefly to the client, but not to sit with the client for another 30 minutes. He will have to take this into account next time.

How does a social worker come to a good interpretation? - Chapter 7

After the problem has been clarified, it is time for the care provider to nuance the problems. The nuancing can help the client to see ways out and to gain new insights. The counselor has an active and guiding function in this phase. He tries to interpret the information and will express his own insights on the issue. The question now is: how do you arrive at a good interpretation?

How does the social worker come to connections, interpretations and information?

How can one see the connections that contribute to a clear view of the causes of the problems? How can one come to a hypothesis? The counselor will have to use theories. He can come to a correct interpretation with the help of theories. Interpreting is clarifying the problems. This means that facts, emotions and certain situations are made more understandable. In addition, the information must be seen in a context. This way the individual facts get more meaning. Different theories lead to different interpretations. It is the caregiver's job to place the information in the context of a psychological theory. Moreover, the care provider must take into account his own frame of reference in order to gain new insights.He must also pay attention to biological and social factors that play a role in the client. This is called psychological interpretation. Wording interpretations will be surprising for some clients. In that case, the interpretations do not fit in with the client's frame of reference. There are also interpretations that are more or less known to the client. The client had a vague notion of the insights and was unable to describe it clearly. In that case the interpretations are enlightening. The counselor must be patient in expressing the interpretations. He will first have to check his insights himself. Moreover, the client then has the opportunity to find new ways to solve the problems himself. When a counselor tells the client the insights, he must realize that everyday language is desired.Everyday language is more understandable and makes collaboration more flexible. This also ensures that the client can actually do something with the insights, and therefore understands them.

What should one pay attention to when nuancing?

Giving information and insights is a form of nuance. The caregiver can consciously apply nuances. There are various nuancing skills. In the first place, the counselor can make use of nuanced empathy. The counselor tries to find out what the client 'says' between the lines and what half-hidden feelings he expresses. He then translates things and expresses his suspicions. In this way he can elaborate on the issue. The confrontation is a strengthened form of this skill. The counselor confronts the client with the hard facts or with an insight that is at odds with the client's vision. His tone is important. An example: Joop talks about anything and everything and does not answer the questions.   The counselor has had enough of this and says: 'You avoid the questions all the time. Do you also do this in daily life? " The counselor can also be more compelling: 'You avoid the questions all the time. From now on you just give a short and clear answer. " The confrontation can have an unmasking effect. It can also lure the client out of the tent. The client must confront. He will be able to deny or agree. It is important that the client is given the time to respond. Confronting is a good way to ensure that the client no longer revolves around the facts. The counselor can also use the confrontation to emphasize the client's strengths. So confrontation does not always have to have a negative charge!   A positive re-labeling is a variant of the positive confrontation. This means that the counselor gives a more positive view of the various aspects of the problem. Positive re-labeling assumes that a positive motivation brings the client to the counselor: if the client were only negative, he would not seek help. One of the most important functions of re-labeling is to change a negative self-image. An example: Jantje considers himself a slow diver. The counselor tells Jantje that the slow behavior may belong to a balanced personality. The slow behavior is therefore associated with a good characteristic. Affixing positive labels is a good thing if the client himself has an explanation for his behavior that is incorrect or undesirable.A positive label can also be applied if the client has no statements. Other functions of positive re-labeling are: obtaining a more adequate view of the solution of problems and the fact that the counselor can supplement the environmental influences on client behavior. The counselor who involves his person in the process is also discussed. The counselor does this by involving his own experiences in the conversations. This makes the conversations a little less formal and the counselor gets an exemplary role.The counselor who involves his person in the process is also discussed. The counselor does this by involving his own experiences in the conversations. This makes the conversations a little less formal and the counselor gets an exemplary role.The counselor who involves his person in the process is also discussed. The counselor does this by involving his own experiences in the conversations. This makes the conversations a little less formal and the counselor gets an exemplary role.   Directness is also a form of confrontation. In a 'meta-conversation' it is openly discussed what is going on in the conversations between care provider and client. The intention is that the counselor draws the client's attention to a prominent aspect of his personality. The counselor uses directness to prevent his own displeasure about the progress of the conversation. Moreover, he must have the idea that talking about this will have a positive influence on the development of the conversation. The counselor also uses directness if the client has difficulty expressing his feelings and thoughts about his relationship with the counselor. Finally, it is important to know that immediacy can only be used if the client fully trusts the counselor. 

What role does the counselor play in the client's life changes? - Chapter 8

Below it is about bringing about desired changes in the client's life and the role that the caregiver can play in a supportive or more guiding sense. This subject has already been discussed; but below we pay attention to (whether or not directive) supportive aspect of the caregiver on the daily operations of the client without resolving the problem for him and thus increasing the client's independence and self-management. The care provider must therefore achieve the following 4 points:

(1) that the client makes a will decision . Through an internal dialogue the client can take changing positions with regard to what he wants. That is why the counselor must delve into the latest views on personality in psychology: namely the theory of the polyphony of the person . An external dialogue can influence the internal dialogue.

(2) that the client gains insight into the learning process when solving problems. To do this, the care provider develops a step-by-step plan to take action. The care provider then guides the client through the process that has arisen and offers a frame of reference.

The step-by-step plan consists of the following three phases:

1. The client's own efforts to improve: it is wise to discuss earlier attempts by the client to solve his problems.

2. The more specific formulation of goals and intentions to achieve those goals: the sub-goals are listed below. These are also important for the care provider.

3. The evaluation of experiences and possible adjustment of the plans: the counselor shows understanding for the feelings of the client. With various processes he brings up possible successes and emphasizes what the client can learn from negative results. This has been worked out by Bandura in a schematic triangle ("the triangle of Bandura").

(3) that the client receives training in knowledge and skills in order to achieve the desired changes: this can be achieved by the care provider as a reluctant supportive coach, and - if the client lacks in knowledge and skills - as a trainer. As a trainer he deals with the client in a more direct and instructive way and, as it were, teaches him. We can distinguish ten steps from this process: identification and clarification of problems, nuance of insight into the problems, priorities, goal, means, criteria, implementation, evaluation, new start and completion.

(4) that the counselor knows his own limits and possibly refers and / or ends the assistance after the goal has been achieved. Terminating the help is often more difficult than people think. There are various reasons for this: the client still has a problem, he has a bond with the care provider that is not easy to break or he experiences the treatment in a very positive way. However, the counselor will have to stop treatment if he cannot help the client (further). A form of termination of treatment is the referral.

In that case the care provider works according to six steps:

1. Tell that he refers the client.

2. Make clear why the client is being referred.

3. Tell who is being referred to.

4. Discuss whether the client wants to be referred.

5. Telling how the client can obtain the address of another care provider.

6. Make an appointment to find out if the referral went well.

Another reason to end the treatment is the unwillingness of the client. He no longer feels like it, thinks it has been enough or may not dare to come. The counselor, even if he may disagree with the client, cannot do anything about this. He can possibly give the client the address of another care provider. However, it becomes a different story if the care provider does not want to continue the treatment. This may be the case, for example, if the counselor absolutely cannot get along with the client, falls in love with the client, there is a big difference in norms and values ​​between the client and the counselor, or if the counselor does not consider himself skilled enough. You can of course also end the assistance if the goal has been achieved.