Article summary with Self-determination theory and work motivation by Gagné and Deci - 2005

Introduction: cognitive evaluation theory

This theory is used to explain the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation. It suggests that external factors (e.g. rewards, evaluations) undermine intrinsic motivation; this is called the undermining effect. Feelings of competence and autonomy are important for intrinsic motivation (e.g. positive feedback). You can only use rewards without affecting intrinsic motivation if you give them independent of the task and when they are not anticipated. Some problems with the cognitive evaluation theory: conclusions are solely based on laboratory studies and they are hard to incorporate, activities at work are simply not intrinsically interesting and monetary rewards are practical. Furthermore, this theory implies that you should focus on either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory offers a solution: extrinsically motivated behaviour can become autonomous through internalization.

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory states that there is a distinction between autonomous motivation (which is volitional, with a sense of choice) and controlled motivation (with a sense of pressure, having to do something). Behaviour can thus be described in terms of the degree to which it is autonomous or controlled. So, there is no simple distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: extrinsic motivation can vary in the degree to which it is autonomous versus controlled. Behaviour can be externally regulated: it is initiated and maintained by something external, which is the classic type of extrinsic motivation and controlled motivation. Sometimes, however, we internalize values and attitudes such that the external regulation becomes an internal regulation. There is, according to self-determination theory, a controlled-to-autonomous continuum: the more fully it has been internalized, the more autonomous the subsequent behaviour is. Internalization covers three processes: 1. Introjection: when a regulation has been taken in by a person who has not yet accepted it as his own, as if the regulation is controlling the person, so this is a relatively controlled form of internalized extrinsic motivation, 2. Identification: when people identify with the value of a behaviour for their own goals, in this stage there is more freedom, the behaviour reflects an aspect of the actor, and 3. Integration: this is the fullest form of internalization; it involves the integration of an identification with other aspects of oneself. Integrated regulation does not become intrinsic motivation, because the person is not interested in the activity because they enjoy it, but the activity is merely instrumentally important for their personal goals. Both intrinsic and integrated extrinsic motivation are autonomous.

Some basic psychological needs need to be fulfilled in order for a behaviour to become internalized. In order to achieve introjections, the needs for relatedness and competence need to be met. In order to achieve identification and integration, also the need for autonomy needs to be met. According to self-determination theory, a need is a universal necessity, it is a nutriment that is essential for optimal human development. Wellbeing can thus be predicted by the extent to which people have satisfied these needs. So, the work climate should promote the satisfaction of the needs for relatedness (e.g. endorsement by others), competence (e.g. meaningful feedback) and autonomy (e.g. provide a choice). This will enhance intrinsic motivation and promote the internalization of extrinsic motivation. These basic needs provide the basis for predicting which aspects of a social context will support intrinsic motivation and facilitate the internalization of extrinsic motivation. For example: autonomy-supportive interpersonal environments that provide a meaningful rationale for doing the task, acknowledgement that people might not find the task interesting, and an emphasis on choice rather than control. The more of these are present, the more internalization will occur. Furthermore, for the internalization of extrinsic motivation, you need structures, limits, contingencies, and endorsement of behaviour by others, for intrinsic motivation you don’t need those. Another factor that needs to be considered is interpersonal differences in the general tendency to be autonomy oriented (which corresponds to autonomous motivation), control oriented (which corresponds to controlled motivation), or impersonally oriented (which corresponds to a-motivation).

The relation of self-determination theory to other theories of work motivation

All previous motivation theories focus on motivation as a single variable that varies in amount, not in type (as is the case in self-determination theory).

• Goal-setting theory: people’s goal representations are the cause of behaviour, and performance will be maximized when they set specific, difficult goals with high valence and understand which behaviour will lead to the goal. Furthermore, one needs to feel competent. This theory does not differentiate types of motivation or goals.

• Action regulation theory: this theory emphasizes mechanisms that keep people focused on goal-direction action. Decision latitude (which is essentially autonomy) is introduced, which promotes intrinsic motivation.

• Kanfer’s task specific motivation: this is also a unitary conception of motivation, which is affected by distal (e.g. the utility of doing a task) and proximal factors (e.g. self-monitoring). There is a great focus on task performance, while self-determination theory focuses more on both well-being and performance outcomes. Also, self-determination theory can better predict different types of performance (algorithmic versus heuristic).

• Job characteristics theory: according to this theory, the optimal job should provide variety, freedom, and meaningful feedback, it should involve completion of a whole, and have a positive impact on the lives of others. This all should facilitate intrinsic work motivation. Self-determination theory states that these indeed promote autonomous motivation, but it adds that management styles should also be autonomy-supportive. Furthermore, job characteristics theory states that the strength of basic psychological needs is an individual difference, while self-determination theory states that everyone needs to satisfy the same basic needs. People just differ in their causality orientation.

• Needs and motives: earlier theories developed hierarchical ordering of needs (e.g. Maslov, Herzberg). Self-determination theory also uses the concepts of needs and its effect on performance and well-being, but it adds regulatory processes that direct behaviour. So, not only a focus on how behaviour is energized, but also how it is directed.

• Kelman’s theory of internalization and the concept of identification: The focus here is on identification with other people (you will be inclined to engage in behaviour endorsed by the person you identify yourself with). In self-determination theory, the focus in on identifying with values and behaviours and internalizing them (so, not on identifying with someone else). Also, the resulting behaviour can still be controlled or autonomous, and Kelman’s theory does not address this.

• Organizational commitment: O’Reilly & Chatman state that there are three forms of organizational commitment: 1. Identification with the organization (in self-determination theory: introjected motivation), 2. Internalization of the organization’s values (in self-determination theory: autonomous extrinsic motivation: identification or integration), and 3. Compliance (in self-determination theory: external regulation). Allen & Meyer introduce affective commitment, which is the identification with, emotional attachment to, and involvement in the organization (in self-determination theory: autonomous motivation: identification, integration or intrinsic motivation).

Self-determination theory in organizations

Research has confirmed that autonomy-supportive work environments and managerial methods promote basic need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and the internalization of extrinsic motivation, which leads to persistence, performance, job satisfaction, positive work attitudes, organizational commitment and psychological well-being. Autonomous motivation is especially important for the completion of complex tasks, and internalized extrinsic motivation for uninteresting tasks that are important and require discipline. Even though there is a lot of support from lab and field studies, research needs to be done in organizational settings to provide support.

Relation of self-determination theory to other organizational behaviour research questions

• Organizational citizenship (voluntary behaviours that are not recognized by the formal reward structure) can be linked to autonomous motivation, because it predicts volunteering and pro-social behaviour.

• Performance-satisfaction relation: research has shown a modest positive relation between job performance and job satisfaction. Self-determination theory adds moderators to this relationship: it states that job aspects (such as complexity, challenge, importance and choice), an autonomous causality orientation, and autonomy-supportive climates lead to autonomous motivation, which results in good performance and satisfaction.

• Rewards seem to undermine intrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory states that this is not always true; equitable rewards in an autonomy-supportive climate, by an autonomy-supportive manager, with a function to acknowledge competence can actually enhance intrinsic motivation.

Promoting extrinsic motivation in the workplace

Some factors are discussed that promote extrinsic motivation in the workplace:

• Enlarge jobs: either horizontally (more activities, meaningfulness) or vertically (more planning, decision making, problem solving). This can effectively convey the importance of the work.

• Autonomy-support: provide choice, take the employees’ perspectives, encourage self-initiation, provide a meaningful rationale for uninteresting behaviour.

• Relatedness: allow interdependence among employees and encourage identification with work groups.

Thus, enable employees to experience meaningfulness, competence, self-determination and impact in their working environments.