The general aggression model states that violent video games produce aggressive thoughts, feelings and increased arousal. It suggests that exposure to video game violence influences behaviour and personality over time by increasing the accessibility of violent scripts or mental representations for how to act in a situation, and increasingly insensitivity to violence. This model assumes a causal role of violent video games in violence. However, this model is not greatly supported. The catalyst model takes one’s predisposition to aggression and violence into account. It states that individuals genetically predisposed to aggression and violence will be more likely to consume violent media and will be more easily provoked to violence when experiencing environmental stress. This model does not assume a causal role of violent video games in violence.It appears as if competitiveness and not violence plays an important role in the relationship between violent videogames and aggression. The hot-sauce paradigm and the noise-blast paradigm have been used in order to measure aggression. However, there may be several flaws of the noise-blast paradigm:The participants in the lab might not act aggressively but competitively. The measure might not be valid due to a failure to correlate with other measures of aggression.This measure might not be externally valid.The results might not be consistent with a theory.The behaviour might not be ecologically valid.Trends in crime rates do not coincide with trends in violent media exposure. A good theory is comprehensive (1), consistent with other theories (2), precise (3), falsifiable (4) and has practical application (5). There are several fallacies in a politically charged debate:Confirmation biasThis is the selective and convenient use of information that aligns with one’s beliefs.Availability heuristicThis is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of easily accessible information. Ad hominem...

Medium refers to anything that is used by humans to communicate some kind of message. McQuail states that there are four elements that determine the emergence of a mass medium:Purpose or need for communication.Technology for public communication.Social organization for production and distribution.Governance in the public interest.McLuhan argued that it is not possible to separate medium and message. He also argued that media can be seen as an extension of man as a medium can be seen as any phenomenon that changed the way we go about the world (e.g. electric light). This means that a medium is a phenomenon that changes meaning of something in the world. According to McLuhan, each medium that emerges needs to be treated as an entirely new cultural phenomenon. Before the twentieth century, the newspapers emerged which were fixated on advertisements, followed by the development of magazines, which were also fixated on advertisements. After the twentieth century, radio, television and telephones emerged, which were new forms of mass media. New media distinguishes computer-based media from broadcast media (e.g. radio). There are two phases of web technology; web 1.0 and web 2.0. Web 2.0 refers to media that appeared in the mid to late 2000s (e.g. social networking sites). Media literacy refers to sorting out reliable, useful information from junk, marketing and lies. Media blindness refers to being unable to locate the source of the information we acquire and confuse our actual experiences with mediated experiences.The media effects approach in research focusses on the effects media imposes on the individual. It is mostly based on experimental research. There are two objections to the media effects approach:Low ecological validityThis type of research has a low ecological validity as it removes context from media.Not fully developed theoretical rationaleThis type of research often does not have a fully developed theoretical rationale...

Crime is often portrayed in mass media because of the steady supply of events (1), the ease of gathering information (2) and the inherent interest among readers and viewers (3). Mass media does not accurately reflect crime in a country or in a region because some crimes are more likely to be reported on than other crimes.There are five factors that make events more newsworthy:Events that are personalized rather than abstract (i.e. the news is often about the actor than the content).Events that have drama and conflict.Events that contain action.Events that are novel and deviating (i.e. the more novel or uncommon an event is, the more newsworthy it is).Events that are linked to an ongoing theme (e.g. a crimewave).There are subfactors that determine when an event receives coverage:Events that are inoffensive (i.e. events that do not outrage a lot of people).Events that are credible (i.e. credible sources are more likely to receive news coverage).Events that can be packaged as sound bites (e.g. slogans and nicknames).Events that have a local hook (i.e. crime that involves a person from a certain area is more likely to be reported in the area the person is from).These factors are related to psychological processes as people attend more to things that have personal relevance (1), things that are vivid (2), things that contain action and conflict (3) and things that are novel or unexpected (4). The consequences of this selection is that mundane events are underreported (1), violent crimes are reported more than property crimes (2) and crimes committed by strangers are reported on more (3). Television news is often more about the visual impact of a crime than objective seriousness of the event. Fictional crimes on television are not representative for actual crimes as they grossly miscalculate how often certain crimes occur. There is a downward trend of newspapers being published (1) and readership among adults (2). There are fewer...

Persuasion refers to a process whereby a message sender intends to influence an message receiver’s evaluative judgements regarding a particular object. Cognitive Response Models of Persuasion assume that the thoughts people have during message exposure drive their subsequent attitudes. Message recipients are active participants whose cognitive reactions mediate the influence of a persuasive attempt. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion states that there is a central and a peripheral route to persuasion. Central processing includes thoughtful consideration of the arguments and information and occurs when there is sufficient processing motivation and ability. The ratio of favourable to unfavourable cognitive responses generated about the message predicts the persuasive outcome. Peripheral processing includes heuristics will be used and occurs when there is insufficient processing motivation or ability. Attitude change based on central processing is more stable, enduring and predictive of behaviour. Criticism of this model is the dichotomy between central and peripheral processing (1), the definition of argument strength (2) and the inability to specify whether particular message features will be processed centrally or peripherally (3). Thought confidence refers to the idea that confidence in one’s thoughts about the message intensifies their effect. Chaiken’s heuristic-systematic model (HSM) of persuasion states accuracy-motivated people may assess message validity through heuristic and systematic processing. This may operate concurrently depending on the receiver’s judgemental confidence threshold for a particular issue. According to this model, individuals base decisions on heuristics if they can be sufficiently confident in the accuracy of those decisions. Expectancy value theories assume that people have expectancies regarding whether an object has a certain attribute and they ascribe a particular value to that attribute...

The programmes on television have an enduring effect on the viewer. How it influences a person depends on the type of judgement required (1), television viewing frequency (2) and characteristics of the viewing experience (3). Television has the potential to influence normative perceptions (1) and attitudes, values and beliefs (2). The cultivation theory states that the content of television programmes presents a systematic distortion of reality and that frequent exposure to these distorted images result in their internalization (e.g. learning the lessons of television; overestimating violence). A point of criticism regarding this theory is the ambiguity of the causal direction of the variables. The reliability and validity of the cultivation effect are debated because the effects found are small (1), the effects are not consistently found (2) and statistically controlling for some variables (e.g. demographics) makes the effect non-significant (3). However, small effect sizes can be meaningful (1) and small effect sizes might mask larger effects within certain groups (2). First-order cultivation measures refers to frequency and probability estimates of real-world facts after watching television. The first-order judgements are memory-based (i.e. formed by recalling information from memory). The second-order measures refers to belief measures. The second-order judgements are constructed through an online process (i.e. information that is being processed in real-time is used to update current judgements or construct new ones). An example of online judgements is forming an impression.The difference is that the first-order cultivation measures can be objectively determined whilst the second-order measures are inherently subjective. First-order cultivation effects are larger and more reliable than second-order cultivation effects (1) and the two measures are uncorrelated (2). The accessibility model for first-order cultivation effects assumes...

The use of internet is common for terrorism. The instant connections over internet increase the opportunity for exposure to aggression for all participants. Internet also allows for the possibility of deeper, more narrow penetration both into content areas and into the private psychological spaces of users.Terrorists use the internet to target specific segments of the population with more subtle and detailed information. There are three differences between how terrorists use the internet and other forms of media. On the internet:Terrorist groups are more pacifistic in their rhetoric.The webpages contain a great deal of detailed information.The webpages offer visitors more possibilities to take action (e.g. donations).The internet provides new tools for young aggressors who already engage in aggressive behaviours in the physical world to victimize a larger group of peers in cyberspace. Aggression refers to a behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid the harm. Instrumental aggression refers to aggression that is used to attain goals. Hostile aggression refers to aggression where harm or injury to the target is the primary goal of the behaviour. This is associated with anger in response to frustration.The network theory of emotions states that emotions, cognitions and action tendencies are connected in memory through association. The activation of one element van spread to other nodes in the associative network. It is likely that instrumental and hostile aggression are a continuum. Aggression through the internet is more subtle and encompassing than overt forms of aggression (e.g. homicide with guns). Media exposure is a risk factor and not a unique cause of aggression. Individuals with certain predispositions are likely to seek out media that are consistent with those pre-existing predispositions. This is, in turn, likely to strengthen those dispositions. The general...

Connected presence refers to people always being online and connected to others. Online communication offers tools to generate relatedness when physical presence is not possible. Partner phubbing refers to the extent to which an individual uses or is distracted by one’s cell phone while in the company of the relationship partner. This could undermine relationship satisfaction, commitment, intimacy and closeness. There are three important stages for relationships:The initiation or formation of the relationship.The maintenance of the relationship.The dissolution of the relationship. In the first stage, the nature of the relationship is determined. One important goal of this stage is uncertainty reduction. This can be achieved through passive strategies (e.g. observation) (1), active strategies (e.g. talking to others) (2) and interactive strategies (e.g. talk with the person) (3). Online communication has amplified the potential for dating partners to engage in communication employing any of the three strategies. Mobile devices ease the obstacles of first real contact and makes ongoing contact easier. The perceived risk and costs of examining possible partners is also lower in online dating because rejection is nearly invisible. Online dating requires low effort and engagement, allowing to maintain contact with multiple partners. Virtual relationships tend to be less intimate than face-to-face relationships. Online devices also opens ways to test strategies and experiment with ideas on how to get into contact and start a relationship and how to display affection and how to maintain high frequency contact. Electronic communication allows for greater control. The greater control leads to less anxiety in online contact. The maintenance stage is characterized by strategic communication to ensure the continued existence and desired level of closeness in the relationship. There are several strategies of relationship maintenance:Engaging in...

Personality refers to those characteristics of the person that account for one’s consistent pattern of behaviour. Online anonymity refers to the perception of the user that one can surf the net without disclosing information that might lead other surfers to identify oneself. Anonymous computer-mediated-communication provides a higher level of control over disclosures as it hides social cues and can limit social presence. The receivers attribute qualities to the senders which are not conveyed due to less disclosure and increased anonymity. This increases the degree of intimacy experienced between participants. Disinhibition refers to the fact that when people perceive that they are anonymous, they disclose more information. Feelings of social integration and belonging to an online group also increase disclosure. The anonymity of parts of the internet may be instrumental for those looking to explore aspects of their identity and gain feedback and validation. The degree of exposure (e.g. is physical appearance known) depends on the function of the internet that is used (e.g social networking sites). However, even in social networking sites, there is a large degree of control because of impression management. Impression management includes choosing which pictures to display.The lack of clarity about the physical appearance of people may be fruitful for people who face negative effects because of their appearance (e.g. unattractive). People tend to feel less anxious online in social interactions with a high degree of anxiety (e.g. romantic encounter). Being member of a group that shares goals and interests is a major way of enhancing self-esteem. The internet is often used to connect to core group members. A core group member refers to a person with whom the surfer relates based on their main identity categorization (e.g. nationality). The internet makes it more simple to find a group of others who are similar, which can be important for people...

Social networking sites that allows users to craft self-representations that reveal core aspects of their self-concept (1) and highlights social connections with friends and family (2) satisfy human ego needs regarding desired self-images. These ego needs motivate social networking site use. The self-affirmation theory states that people have a fundamental need to see themselves as valuable, worthy and good. This is an important motivator for behaviour. People tend to dismiss, distort or avoid information that threatens their self-worth. People value, cultivate and gravitate towards information that reinforces the positive self-image. Self-affirmation refers to the process of bringing essential aspects of the self-concept to awareness (e.g. meaningful relationships). People are motivated to seek out such information in the environment and this need becomes particularly salient after an ego threat. After attending to self-affirming information, people’s tendency to engage in defensive processes is reduced or eliminated. Self-affirmation makes people more open-minded and secure toward threatening events. Facebook profiles may constitute a venue for self-affirmation and users gravitate toward them in an unconscious effort to elevate their perceptions of self-worth and self-integrity. Social connectedness is the most potent source of self-affirmation. In order for Facebook profiles to be self-affirming, they need to represent the domains of self on which self-worth is contingent (1), must offer a positive and desirable self-presentation (2) and the profiles must be accurate (3) Facebook profile exposure is a self-affirming activity. Facebook profile exposure increases self-worth and self-integrity. By showcasing a version of self that is attractive, successful and embedded in a network of meaningful relationships, Facebook enhances users’ perceptions of self-worth. Facebook users gravitate toward their online profiles after...

Big data refers to data sets large enough to require supercomputers. It is less about data that is big than it is about a capacity to search, aggregate and cross-reference large data sets. Big data rests on the interplay of:TechnologyMaximizing computation power and algorithmic accuracy to gather, analyse, link and compare data setsAnalysisDrawing on large data sets to identify patterns in order to make economic, social, technical and legal claims.MythologyThe widespread belief that large data sets offer a higher form of intelligence and knowledge that can generate insights that were previously impossible. Social systems are regulated by market (1), law (2), social norms (3) and architecture (4). Big data creates a radical shift in how is thought about research. It changes the definition of knowledge. Big data does not necessarily provide an answer to why questions (e.g. why do people vote for Bush). Big data claims that it is objective and accurate. However, it is still subjective. The data still requires interpretation which is inherently subjective. Big data also often consists of errors as it mostly consists of data from the internet.The same methodological issues of smaller data sets exist in big data. Articulated networks refer to networks that result from people specifying their contacts through technical mechanisms (e.g. e-mail; followers). Behavioural networks refer to networks based on communication patterns (e.g. people who text each other). However, these two networks are not equivalent to personal networks. Context of data is hard to interpret at scale and difficult to maintain when data are reduced to fit in a model. In order to act ethically, it is important that researchers reflect on the importance of accountability to the field of research and the research subjects. Big data researchers rarely acknowledge that there is a difference between being in public and being public. Companies that possess the data (i.e....

Different kinds of internet use may have different consequences for the way cognitive processes unfold. Experience (1) and agency (2) are two key dimensions of mind perception. The internet is perceived as a hive mind, a vast compendium of continuously updated information. This device is used for finding and learning various kinds of information. Computers are also able to channel the presence of other people who we could interact with offline. The transactive memory system refers to a model that expands the cognitive psychology metaphor of a single computer processor in a network of processors and has since expanded to accommodate the incorporation of actual computers into the system, which allows us to access the collective knowledge stored on the internet. The transactive memory becomes stress when the ‘where to find it’ changes. People do not properly remember information when they have the opportunity to look it up. When people have highly memorable trivia and an unmemorable location of finding it, they remember one of the two but not both (i.e. knowing where to find it but not the answer). People appear to be prioritizing remembering where to find information rather than remembering the information itself. Distributive practice refers to the repeated exposure to the same or meaningfully similar information over time. Repeated exposure to information improves the memory of that information. Repeated learning of information is retained longer when it is spaced apart in time compared to spending the same amount of time learning in one go. People feel more confident about their future performance and their cognitive ability in general when they have access to the knowledge of the internet. Solving problems creatively involves not utilizing the most accessible or dominant solution. When solutions lie outside of the range of one’s own expertise, creative problem solving declines. Divergent and holistic processing is needed to solve...

Internet addiction refers to a person experiencing addiction-like patterns of using online applications. There are five subtypes of internet addiction:Internet gaming disorderInternet pornography addictionInternet social networking sites addictionInternet shopping sites addictionInternet gambling addictionThe general internet addiction consists of subdimensions; interpersonal problems (1) and time management problems (2). The general internet addiction model states that psychopathological symptoms (e.g. depression, social anxiety) makes a person more susceptible to develop general internet addiction. Internet-related expectancies (i.e. the internet brings desirable consequences) and coping behaviours (i.e. coping in dysfunctional ways) are a result of the predispositions that make a person more susceptible to general internet addiction. According to the model, internet addiction is the result of interacting undesirable personal characteristics and internet-related cognitions.The accessibility of being online was different in the past. There were more external barriers (e.g. the required use of a desktop computer to go online). Mobile devices allowed for permanently online, permanently connected (POPC). The permanently availability and the perception of continues closeness of the object of addiction (i.e. mobile phone) is likely to overwhelm addicted users with problems with self-regulation and self-directedness. POPC makes the behavioural execution of internet addiction likely to become permanent. POPC is also a risk factor for people who are not addicted to the internet but are at risk of becoming addicted to the internet. POPC is probably less relevant for subtypes of internet addiction that require long, continuous online sessions (e.g. video gaming and pornography). It is more likely to affect subtypes of the internet that allow for short online sessions (e.g. gambling, shopping). POPC can be seen as an amplifier and stabilizer...

The boundary theory explores the way people manage the boundaries for work life and home life. These boundaries tend to be very permeable at the moment, due to permanent internet access. The mobile phone enables constant connectedness to one’s work role (e.g. e-mail, texting). The smartphone blurs boundaries between work time and non-work time. This can have negative effects on family life. There are different strategies one can take when it comes to mobile devices and work:SegmentersThese people do not use a mobile device for work outside of work.IntegratorsThese people use a mobile device for work outside of work, initially experiencing negative effects, but have learned to use it properly to avoid negative effects at home. Failed segmentersThese people use a mobile device for work outside of work and are unable to resist the pressure to be continuously available. This leads to strong negative family effects. It appears as if people can become addicted to the internet. However, it matters less how much time people spend on the internet but mostly what they do with their time on the internet. The prevalence of internet addiction is debated although it seems to be higher in China and other East Asian countries, particularly in adolescent boys. There are several aspects of the internet that are overused most often and they often mimic problem areas of offline behaviour (e.g. gambling):Online gamesPeople are drawn to online games because of the possibility of achievement and the social aspect through team play.Social networksPeople often use social networks (e.g. Facebook, texting). Women tend to use social networks as a mean of to communicate with members of their own peer group while men use social networks as a mean to compensate for fewer face-to-face interactions. Extroverts tend to use social networking sites to enhance existing relationships and introverts tend to use social networking sites to compensate for fewer real-...