Which applications and consequences are part of psychological testing? - Chapter 1

Topic 1A: The nature and uses of psychological testing

Consequences of testing

During their entire lifetime, people are being tested. Examples of tests are the Apgar test for measuring the health of infants, driving and school examinations in adolescence, developmental tests, etc. Tests are being taken across many diverse contexts, and during our lifetime we are likely to have participated in so many tests that by the time of retirement they have had a major impact on our life course. A thorough knowledge of tests is therefore necessary for everyone in the field of psychology. Someone who develops and evaluates tests within the fields of psychology or education is called a psychometrist. Personality and intelligence tests are currently the most essential tests in psychology.

Definition of a test

Tests can be very different in their purposes and format, but in general they share the following characteristics:

A test is a standardized procedure for identifying behavior and describing it by means of categories or scores. There are a number of defining characteristics of tests. Firstly, a test is standardized, which means that the procedures for undertaking it are the same in different settings and under different conditions. Secondly, a test is based on a sample of the behavior that is to be measued. The items within the test do not have to cover the entire behaviour being viewed, as long as they are relevant in a way that permits making inferences about the behaviour.  It is important that the behavior in the sample represents the behavior that is predicted by the test. Thirdly, it must be possible to derive categories or scores from the test. A certain amount of measurement error must always be taken into account: X = T + e, where X is the observed score, T is the true score and e is the error. A test developer should try to make e as small as possible.

It should also be remembered that the abstract characteristic that is measured by a test does not represent a physical 'something' in the world. Fourthly, it is necessary to establish a standard with which scores of participants can be compared. This is done by means of a standardisation sample, whereby this sample must be representative of the population for which the test is intended. The standard indicates when people deviate. Finally, tests are intended to predict nontest behaviors. A test can therefore have more than one goal and goals can differ from the actual behaviour being measured by the test. To know whether the behavior is actually predicted by the test is done through validation research, which is mostly being conducted after the test has been released.

Distinctions in testing

The majority of tests are norm-referenced, whereby the score of each participant is interpreted in comparison with a relevant standardized sample. Other tests are criterion-referenced, where the aim is to determine where a participant stands with regard to clearly defined criteria. School exams are an example of the latter category, because students’ scores are classified into a predetermined grade system (instead of making a comparison with a reference group).

Another important distinction is that between assessment and testing. Assessment is a term used for more comprehensive research and refers to the entire process of collecting information about a person, on the basis of which something can be said about characteristics and behaviour can be predicted. Tests are therefore only one source of information for an entire assessment process.

Types of tests

Tests can be roughly divided into group tests, which can largely be taken with pen and paper and with several participants at the same time, and individual tests, which are taken one-on-one. The various categories of tests are discussed below. They occur in different forms (norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, individual tests and group tests).

• Intelligence tests: the general intellectual ability of an individual is measured, based on the skills that are important in a particular culture. There are sub-scores, but usually the general score is being used. The test generally consists of a heterogeneous combination of items that measure different aspects of intelligence.
   
• Aptitude tests: one or more specific aspects of competence are measured. This kind of testing is often used to predict success in a particular job or study.
   
• Achievement tests: this measures the degree of learning, success, or achievement of an individual with regard to a specific task. The difference with the aptitude test is the purpose and content of the test. Aptitude tests measure the course of the performance of individuals, Achievement tests measure the abilities of someone at the test moment.
   
• Creativity testing: the ability to develop new ideas, insights or creations is measured. For these tests one has to be able to think divergent: looking for different solutions for a complex problem. There are still doubts about whether creativity is a form of applied intelligence.
   
• Personality tests: characteristics or behaviors are measured that determine the individuality and character of a person.

• Interest inventories: the preference of an individual for certain activities or topics is measured, often to help with occupational choice.
   
• Behavioral procedures: the antecedents and consequences of behavior are measured, or the frequency of the behaviour is objectively described
   
• Neuropsychological tests: these are used to investigate persons with possible brain damage. For the most part, these are long and intensive one-on-one tests.

Different types of test use

There are 5 ways to use psychological tests:

• Classification: assigning people to certain categories. This can be subdivided into placement (assigning to different programs based on skills), screening (short tests to identify persons with special needs or characteristics), certification (whereby obtaining a test yields certain privileges) and selection (whereby certification provides access to 'private' circles such as the university or an association).
   
• Diagnosis and treatment planning: determining the nature and cause of abnormal behavior and classifying the behavior within an accepted diagnostic system. Diagnosis must be more than a label, but it must also take into account the underlying information. The diagnosis is also used in the planning of the possible treatment plan.
   
• Self-knowledge: gaining more insight into yourself through a test.
   
• Program evaluation: evaluating the success of certain social or educational programs.
   
• Research: testing hypotheses by means of tests.

The goals of testing often overlap, making a clear distinction difficult. Many tests can also be conducted once and still used for multiple purposes.

There are several factors that can affect the reliability of a test. These factors are discussed above.

Standardized procedures in test administration

Non-standardized tests can significantly influence the results, rendering them unusable. In addition, they are not valid. In some cases, however, it is desirable, sometimes even necessary, to be flexible with regards to the test procedure. This is the case, for example, with participants with disabilities. Deviations from the standard procedure should, however, always be intentional and well though through.

Desirable procedures of test administration

For individual testing it is important that the examiner is familiar with the material, the instructions he/she must give and the way in which details and scores are noted. In addition, it is very important that all participants can understand the written and spoken instructions. Account must also be taken with any restrictions of the participant in, for example, hearing, vision, speech, or motor control.

For people with reduced hearing, it is important that the test leader is aware of this and responds well to it, so that the test results are not influenced. As with vision limitation, most adults report these by themselves, but children often do not mention any limitations. Finally, possible limitations in motor control or speech must be taken into account. This is important in tests that use time responses. Tests can be adapted slightly for people with disabilities without the validity or reliability of the test deteriorating. Sometimes there also are special forms of a test that are adjusted to a certain limitation.

There are also a number of important points for group testing that have to be taken into account by the examiner. For example, when testing with a time limit, it is important that enough time is available and that it is attended to closely. In addition, instructions must be read clearly and not too quickly and must not be paraphrased. Background noise should also be limited as much as possible. Moreover, it is important to clearly indicate whether guessing, if the participant does not know the answer, does have any consequences. Many tests have a built-in guess correction.

Influences of the examiner

It is important that the test leader ensures 'rapport': a good rapport with the participants creates a comfortable and motivating atmosphere. This increases the cooperativeness with the participant. Research shows conflicting results about the influence of race, experience and gender of the examiner on the results. In some unique cases this seems to be of influence.

Background and motivation of the examinee

Different aspects of the participant can influence the test results. Test anxiety refers to all behavioral reactions that come along with concerns about possible failure of a test. Research shows that test anxiety is both a cause and consequence of poor performance on tests. Especially in tests with time pressure, the results of participants with test anxiety can be strongly influenced.

In addition, it sometimes happens that participants create false results to get a certain test result. You should also take into account the motivation of the participant: An unmotivated participant can provide unreliable results.

Topic 1B: Ethical and Social implications of testing

Professional standards for testing

Usually tests are carried out responsibly, but there are of course exceptions where the irresponsible application or interpretation of a test can sometimes have disastrous consequences. That is why guidelines for responsible test use have been developed by professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association (APA). The responsibilities of test developers and test users are described below.

Responsibilities of test publishers

Test publishers must take into account various factors. Firstly, tests must meet all guidelines before they are issued. For example, it is mandatory to provide technical and user manuals with the test. Secondly, any marketing and advertising of the test must take place in an accurate and sincere manner. A test may only be published when the reliability and validity have been investigated. The test must state in what way the reliability and validity were investigated and what the results were. It should also be clear who can use the test and what qualifications a person must have for this. Often certain certifications are required for use.

Responsibilities of test users

The APA, among others, has published ethical guidelines and professional standards for test use to ensure the well-being of the participants and their surroundings. This includes, for example, the guideline that testing must always be to the benefit of the client. Confidentiality is also a duty of the test leader, although it is mandatory to report serious threats to the participants or others.

In addition, it is necessary that the examiner has the necessary expertise to take a test. Informed consent is another important condition. This means that all participants are informed in advance about the research and give their permission. Furthermore, account must be taken of what the standard of care is for a specific case, i.e. which method or test is most frequently used at that moment and is the most accepted.

For example, one must be careful with the use of outdated material. In addition, test results should be communicated correctly with the participant, giving effective and constructive feedback. This should not be beyond the boundaries of the tester's expertise. The psychological report written about the research should be direct and concrete.

This is important because the content of the report can have an impact on the life of the participant, for example when the report is requested by an employer. Finally, respect and recognition of individual differences is very important for test use.

Testing cultural and linguistic minorities

Psychological tests are mainly aimed at Western populations. It therefore cannot be assumed that existing tests are suitable for all population groups. Since the 1930s, there has been a rise in culture-sensitive testing, but the work is far from complete. Other cultures may have different norms, values ​​or beliefs. This may cause them to look differently at a test or respond differently to the results.

The influence of cultural background on test results

Research shows that people from different cultural backgrounds complete and interpret tests in different ways. For example, indigenous peoples in the US show a different conception of time than the white middle class in America.

In addition, it appears that, for example, African Americans qualitatively respond in a different way to testing than Anglo-Americans; children of African American origin turned out to be less spontaneous in their answers. Similar differences are also visible in adults. In addition, testing may involve the danger of stereotyping, whereby the participants unconsciously confirm the negative stereotype that exists about their own group. This is also called stereotype threat. Test scores are not always the same for individuals, but are created within a social psychological field that is influenced by different cultural factors.

Unintended effects of high-stakes testing

Another effect that can play a role in testing is fraud. This is particularly the case with tests whose results have a lot of influence, for example when selecting for a job or study. Mass fraud occurs seldomly. Moreover, fraud with the help of parents or teachers also tends to occur.

Another aspect of fraud is described by the Lake Wobegon Effect, which refers to the fact that in many schools more than 50% of pupils have above average grades. This is mainly because our society places great emphasis on performance and the excellence of schools. Teachers help to cheat the pupils by, among other things, coaching them on key answers, changing answer forms or giving them more time on tests and exams.

It seems that the national trend towards performance tests for selection and evaluation helps to encourage unwanted behavior, but it is not clear how large and widespread the problem is.

How did psychological tests look like over the centuries? - Chapter 2

Topic 2A: The origin of psychological testing

The start of testing in China of 2200 BC

A long time ago in China psychological tests were conducted by the government to test the fitness of officers. Although there are some similarities with modern testing, the tests in old China were unnecessarily exhausting and, moreover, not validated.

Physiognomy, phrenology and the psychograph

Physiognomy is the idea that we can read the character of people by their appearance, especially the face. Although this idea is no longer tenable, it represents one of the early forms of psychological testing of the 4^th century BC. Authors writing about this subject included Aristotle and Lavater. A special form of physiognomy is phrenology, which represents the 'reading' of nodules on the head. This theory has been developed by Gall. Lavery developed a machine in the 1930s to read these bumps, which he called the psychograph.

The experimental era

The field of experimental psychology was growing quickly at the end of the 19^th century in Europe. This period also constituted the beginning of using objective measurements. Although this was progress, there were also many misconceptions, such as that intelligence could be measured by sensory processes. Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig. He made the first attempts to arrive at empirical analyses that could explain individual differences.

Galton introduced the new experimental psychology in Great Britain. He was inspired by the idea that everything is measurable and designed different techniques to emphasize it. An important development in his work was the collection of large amounts of data from thousands of subjects. In addition, he focused on measuring and investigating personal differences in both physical and behavioral characteristics. For example, he suggested measuring intelligence from reaction times. This was of course too simple, but he did indicate that objective tests could be developed and that meaningful scores could be achieved through standardized procedures.

Cattell (1860-1944) brought the experimental psychology of Wundt and Galton to the US. Together with Galton he immersed himself in individual differences through various mental tests. Among his students was Wissler (1901), who would have a major influence on the early history of psychological testing. He collected mental test scores and academic data to show that the test results predicted academic performance. However, his findings were not statistically significant. Another problem was that there were only very limited correlations between the mental tests. After the results of Wissler, the use of reaction time and sensory discrimination was abolished as a measure of intelligence. The gap that arose after the Galtonian tradition was filled by Binet, who introduced his intelligence scale in 1905. From Binet on, sensitive and reliable measurements were used more often.

Rating scales

Rating scales are widely used in psychology. The origin goes back to the time of Galen, a doctor from the second century. He believed that there were various 'fluids' in the body (yellow bile, black bile, phlegm and blood), the relationship of which determined the health of an individual. He used a 9-point scale for the presence of these fluids. The first to design rating scales and to apply them to psychological variables was German lawyer Thomasius (1655-1728). He designed a personality theory based on four dimensions, which he took from aspiring judges on a 12-point scale. This can be labelled as the first time in the history of psychology that empirical data was used systematically. After that, the application of rating scales slowly caught on and they were one of the reasons why the phrenologists were able to gain so much respect.

Changing notions of mental retardation

Before Binet developed his intelligence tests in the early 20^th century to identify children with mental retardation, there was little interest in mental retardation in the context of education. The Western world of the late 19^th century treated psychiatric and mentally disabled individuals in a hostile and careless manner. In the 19^th century, a growing distinction was made between mental retardation (idiocy) and psychiatric disorders (dementia).

There was a new humanism with regard to individuals with intellectual disabilities. Esquirol (1772-1840) was the first to describe this difference. He thought that mental retardation was more of a lifelong development phenomenon and mental disorders had a more sudden onset during adulthood. He also thought that mental retardation was not treatable, while disorders were treatable. He put a strong emphasis on language skills for the diagnosis of mental retardation, which is reflected in these tests. He also suggested the first classification system for mental retardation:

1. The use of only short sentences.
2. The use of single-syllable words.
3. No speech but only sounds.

Seguin may have achieved even more because he set up an educational program for people with mental retardation. He wrote a book about this treatment and even came close to what we now call behavior modification.

Binet's early research on intelligence testing

Binet designed the first modern intelligence test in 1905. Important influences on his invention were his background in medicine, restoration of previous sloppy experimental procedures, and scepticism regarding the spirit of experimental psychology. In addition, he was an avid experimentalist, and used his two daughters for his research into intelligence tests.

Binet and testing for higher mental processes

Binet and his assistant Henri published an article in 1896 on the importance of testing for intelligence by means of higher psychological processes instead of the elementary sensory processes. In 1904, the government in Paris instituted a committee to decide on educational measures for children who could not benefit from mainstream education. This committee decided that these children should be identified through research. As a result, in 1905 Binet and Simon developed the first formal scales for measuring intelligence. These tests were initially intended to classify children with very low intelligence. The test focused on verbal skills. It was only possible to obtain a total score and the test was therefore only intended for classification and not for measurements.

The revised scales and the advent of IQ

In 1908 Binet and Simon published a revision of the previous intelligence test. An important innovation of this test was that the concept of mental level was introduced. The test was administered to standard groups consisting of normal children, which made it possible to focus the test on different age groups. Binet and Simon also set up a rough scoring system for each age group. In 1911 they also published a scale for adults. Although Binet warned not to attach too much value to the outcome of his tests, people soon came up with the idea of ​​'mental age'. This indicated in what range a person of a certain age should score, so that a child of 6 with a mental level of a child of 3 was described as 'three years of falling behind'. In 1916 Terman came with the Stanford-Binet, a successful revision of the earlier scales. He also proposed to multiply the intelligence quotient by one hundred. With this the concept of IQ was born. During the development of this test, it was also discovered that the subtests were not suitable for all cultures and that intelligence was possibly associated with a cultural component.

Topic 2B: Testing from the Early 1900s to the Present

As a result of the Binet-Simon scales, people realized the significance of the invention of tests for other social contexts.

Early use and abuse of tests in the US

In 1906 Goddard adapted the Binet-Simon scale for use in American mentally handicapped children. In 1911 he applied it to normal children, which showed that 3% (an unlikely high percentage) of the respondents fell under his definition of 'mentally retarded'. According to him, people were weak if their mental age lagged four years behind their actual age. Goddard was of the opinion that these children should be separated from society, so that they would not ‘contaminate' anyone else.

In 1910, Goddard was invited to Ellis Island to make immigrant investigations more effective. He became convinced that the number of mentally retarded immigrants was much higher than initially thought. He therefore appointed experts to conduct intelligence tests on the immigrants.

Although Goddard was one of the most influential psychologists of the early 20^th century, he is often criticized by modern authors. Perhaps this is because Goddard saw intelligence as hereditary and that he saw feeblemindedness as the cause of most social problems. The main reason, however, is the way in which Goddard abused the intelligence tests. The versions of the Binet-Simon that he applied had been translated several times and were completed by confused immigrants who had just passed the crossing over the Atlantic. He then interpreted the results according to the original French standards. The mental deficiency ratios that he found in this way amounted to 83% per cultural group. The results of his tests were therefore very similar to the prevalent ideological beliefs at that time. After he withdrew his his viewpoints and then returned to them again later, they had already contributed to the restriction of immigration. Therefore, it is important to remember that even leading individuals within generally accepted social norms can abuse psychological tests. Furthermore, the ideologies and belief systems of the time in which statements are made must always be taken into account.

In the 1930s, Hollingworth introduced the use of the Stanford-Binet for testing children's giftedness. Hollingworth was an idealist and proposed measures for additional financial support for gifted children. She was also active in the feminist movement; she was of the opinion that gender differences in intelligence and performance were due to social and cultural influences.

The revised version of the Binet scales by Stanford (1857-1956), the Stanford-Binet, was an improvement on many points. In addition to the introduction of the IQ as we know it now, the revision ensured that the test was suitable for mental retardation, children, normal, and gifted adults.

In addition, clear instructions were drawn up for the collection of data and a sample for standardization was carefully compiled. New tests were validated based on the correlation with the Stanford-Binet test. The Stanford-Binet remained the standard in intelligence testing for decades, even after the Wechsler scale had emerged. The Wechsler scale became a popular alternative because it gives more than a single, global IQ score as is the case with the Stanford-Binet test. The Wechsler results in both a verbal and a non-verbal score.

Group tests and the classification of WWI army recruits

Pyle (1913) was one of the first to develop group tests for schoolchildren in the US. The group tests, however, only slowly became popular, the main reason being the amount of work that scoring with paper and pencil entailed.

In 1917, Yerkes appointed a committee to develop a group intelligence test to test army recruits for intelligence, with the aim of classification and allocation. Two tests were developed: The Army Alpha and the Army Beta. The design and content of these tests had a lot of influence on the field of group tests.

The Army Alpha and Beta exams

The Alpha was based on the work of Otis (1918) and consisted of eight verbal tests for average and high-functioning recruits. The Army Beta was non-verbal and meant for use by illiterates and recruits with a mother tongue other than English. The Beta consisted of various visual-perceptual and motor tests. However, the enormous amount of data that emerged from both tests was not really taken into use. This was partly due to the resistance that existed in the army against scientific innovation. However, there were also good reasons to doubt the validity of the tests and the test conditions. On the other hand, the Army testing psychologists provided an enormous amount of experience in the psychometrics of test construction.

Early educational testing

After WWI there was a great demand for group tests by different institutions. The Army Alpha and Army Beta were released for public use and formed the prototypes for a large number of group tests, including the SATs in the secondary American schools. Other important developments for group tests were the establishment of the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) and the rise of machine scoring. The CEEB was later included in the non-profit organization Educational Testing Service (ETS), which oversaw the development, standardization and validation of well-known tests.

Meanwhile, Terman and colleagues developed the standardized performance test called Stanford Achievement Test (SachT).

The development of aptitude tests

Aptitude tests measure one or more specific skills. Through the newly invented factor analysis method, Thurstone (1938) concluded that general measures of intelligence failed to measure the intellectual strengths and weaknesses of a person. The development of aptitude tests lagged behind the development of more general intelligence tests. This was because factor analysis is necessary to find out which primary properties are involved, and that was only discovered in the 1930s. In addition, there was a social reason: Only by the time of the Second World War was there a need for aptitude tests to select candidates who were qualified for difficult and specialized tasks.

Personality and vocational tests after WWI

Personality tests only emerged in WW I. Woodworth (1919) developed his Personal Data Sheet to test recruits for susceptibility to psychoneurosis. Almost all modern personality tests find their basis in Woodworth's first tests.

The next big development was the neurosis questionnaire by Thurstone, the Thurstone Personality Schedule. This was the first test that used the method of internal consistency. From the Thurstone test resulted the Bernreuter Personality Inventory, which measured four personality dimensions in a sophisticated manner. An important point was that a single test item could apply to multiple personality dimensions. Finally, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was created, with scales that were compiled using Woodworth's method.

The origins of projective testing

Galton was the first to map out the projective approach in the late nineteenth century, through the association method. He stated that mental processing happens in the subconscious. This method was further extended by, among others, Jung (1910). His test included 100 stimulus words, in which the participant had to say the first word that came to him/her as soon as possible. Inspired by, among others, Jung, Rorschach (1884-1922) developed a projective personality test based on participants' reactions to ambiguous stimuli (ink stains). The Rorschach test was initially intended for discovering the inner workings of abnormal participants.

The Thematic Apperception Test was developed for studying normal personality. In this method, a participant is shown a picture, in which case he / she has to come up with a story.

During the same century, Payna (1928) developed a test in which participants had to complete sentences. Buck's (1948) House-Tree-Person-Test allowed participants to draw a house, a person and a tree from which the personality should appear.

The Szonditest (1949) was based on the idea that, on the basis of the choice of a certain image, recessive genes for certain psychiatric disorders could be identified.

The development of interest inventories

The interest inventory has its origins at Thorndike (1912), who researched the developmental trends in the interests of students. The Carnegie Interest Inventory was developed, tested and revised for a number of years until it was renamed in 1927 into Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB). In the development of this test, a distinction was made for the first time between actual differences in results and error. For decades the only serious rival of the SVIB was the Kuder Preference Record, this test looked at the difference in strength of interests within a person. The results were therefore not compared with other participants. The interest tests were mainly used to see which profession best suited someone.

The emergence of structured personality tests

From the 1940s, personality tests became useful for the use of clinical evaluation and assessment of normal functioning. Especially the MMPI was important. Other tests used were the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Most recently, the 'big five' model has been used, on which many tests are based. It includes the five factors neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness.

The expansion and proliferation of testing

Nowadays tests are often used, both for clinical one-on-one use and for group tests with social purposes. In the clinical discipline, thousands of tests are available for different purposes, such as neuropsychology or forensic psychology.

Group tests are nowadays widely used for broad social goals, such as in education and admission to universities.

Evidence-based practice (EBP) has become important in recent years. The advantage of EBP is that it states that treatments and interventions must have measurable positive outcomes. To measure this, psychological tests are best used. This led to evidence-based psychological practice (EBPP), which mainly provides empirically supported interventions.

Which theories about individual intelligence and performance tests are there? - Chapter 5

Topic 5A Theories of intelligence and factor analysis

Definitions of intelligence

Intelligence is one of the most researched topics in psychology.

Operational definitions define a concept in terms of the way the test is used. This way of defining is not useful for intelligence. Intelligence tests have been developed for measuring intelligence and not for defining it. In addition, operational definitions block the further development of the understanding of the nature of intelligence. A second problem is that the operational definition does not allow innovation. The old tests serve as a validity criterion for new tests. There must be a correlation between the old and new tests and in newly developed, innovative tests this correlation may weaken. According to the operational definition, they may therefore not be valid.

The real definition explains the true nature of the concept. To arrive at a true definition of intelligence, you have to ask experts. Several experts have come up with a definition. This list of definitions is Western and does not speak of cultural differences. The East thinks that benevolence, humility, freedom from conventional standards in assessment and doing what is right are essential for intelligence. In Africa, the social aspects of intelligence are emphasized. Despite all the differences, there are usually two things that everyone agrees on: intelligence is the capacity to learn from experiences and the capacity to adapt to the environment.

Another approach to understanding a construct is to study the popular meaning. Sternberg and colleagues did this and found out that the behaviors that are thought to belong to intelligence are quite similar to what experts think. The difference lies more in the order of importance.

When laymen think of intelligence, the following aspects are mentioned: practical problem-solving skills, verbal skills, and social competence. Experts mention the following aspects: verbal intelligence, problem-solving skills, and practical intelligence. This shows that public opinion on intelligence can be recognized in the intelligence tests.

The two parts that lay people and experts agree on are also not included in the tests. Firstly, because it is difficult to find items for these and secondly, because there has been little change in the design of the tests since the Binet time. Sternberg and colleagues have presented innovations that are based on their model of intelligence. Another interesting tool is the Everyday Problem Solving Inventory. In this test, participants should indicate how their response would be to everyday problems, such as forgetting your money when you go for lunch with a friend.

Factor analysis

Factor analysis is used to measure the validity of tests. There is confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory factor analysis. The first one checks whether test scores and variables fit in a predicted pattern and is therefore good for validation research. In the second, the relationships between many variables are summarized and it is examined whether they can be reduced to a lesser number of factors. It ensures that a simplified representation is given of a large, complex data set. Each collection of aptitude tests reflects a number of underlying basic skills.

A factor analysis starts with a correlation matrix, a table that shows correlations between different variables. Variables that have a high correlation with each other seem to explain a factor.

The smallest number of factors are determined by means of fast computers. Then a factor matrix can be made, which shows how heavily a variable weighs on a certain factor (values ​​from -1.00 to +1.00).

The factor loads are then 'rotated', the best fitting variable is stopped at the best matching factors. In 'rotation to positive manifold', as many negative factor loads as possible are removed per factor. In 'rotation to simple structure', factor loadings are classified in such a way that each variable has a significant load with as few factors as possible. The aim is to make the factor matrix as clear and analysable as possible.

The interpretation of the factors that come out has to be done by the researcher himself. The researcher looks at what the variables of the factor have in common and then gives that interpretation. There are also disadvantages for factor analysis. Firstly, a certain factor can only come out of the analysis if the tests and measurements also contain that factor. Second, the sample size is important: around n=300 a factor analysis is stable and reliable. Finally, factor analysis is always subject to subjective choices and theoretical prejudices of the researcher.

Galton and sensory keenness

Galton thought that intelligence was explained by keen sensory abilities. The theory, however, had a dead end with regard to psychometry: it could hardly be tested. Later in the 1980s, however, reaction time tests were developed that measured the speed of processing. Even though these tests suggested that speed-of-processing measures could be a useful addition to standardized intelligence tests, these tests as well as their data analysis were not sufficiently standardized. That is why this method has not been developed much further.

Spearman and the g factor

Spearman stated that intelligence was based on a general intelligence factor g and several specific factors s1, s2, s3, etc. He focused primarily on defining the nature of g which he called the energy or power that generally appears in every context. The specific factor s represents a specific group of neurons that were used in certain mental actions. He found that individual differences in g reflected three principles of cognition: apprehension of experience, eduction of relations, and eduction of correlations. The word eduction can be rephrased as figuring things out. Even though Spearman’s speculations about physiology are for the most part dismissed, his notion of a general factor of intelligence remains relevant until today.

Thurstone and primary mental skills

Thurstone used factor analysis and concluded that not a single intelligence factor, but a group of factors, could explain empirical results. That brought him to his 7 primary mental skills: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, associative memory, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning.

Later he argued that probably a general g factor was at the head and Spearman also stated that there are group factors that explain intelligence. Vernon felt that there was a hierarchy with the g factor at the top, then two group factors verbally and practically and then the 7 skills of Thurstone divided over the two factors.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

According to this theory, intelligence consists of three hierarchical strata. Stratum III is the general intelligence factor g. Stratum II consists of 8 parts, each with a number of specific skills of stratum I which are in brackets:

1. fluent intelligence (5 specific skills): requires high thinking and reasoning and is used for new tasks that are not done automatically.
2. crystallized intelligence (10): the breadth and depth of the knowledge of the individual.
3. domain-specific knowledge (7): knowledge about specific domains that are not typical of culture.
4. visual-spatial abilities (11): presenting, retaining and transforming mental representations of images.
5. auditory processing (13): the accurate observation of auditory information and with it the capacity to analyze, understand and imitate patterns or groups of sounds.
6. memory (13): the ability to consolidate new information and store it in the long-term memory and recall it later through associations.
7. cognitive processing speed (7): the speed of performing automatic processes, especially when a lot of attention and concentration is needed.
8. reaction time (5): the ability to make quick decisions in response to simple stimuli.

The skills of stratum I are always expanded and renewed with research. In addition, this model is widely used because the broad and specific skills are empirically verifiable and they include meaningful and implications for the real world. Many psychometricians consider it having the strongest empirical foundation of any theory of intelligence. Others have proposed a larger list that also includes psychomotor, olfactory, and kinesthetic abilities.

Guilford and structure-of-intellect model

Guilford classified intellectual skills in dimensions of operations, contents and products. Operations are the type of mental actions that the test must contain. Contents refers to the nature of the materials or information that is offered. Products includes the different types of mental structures that the brain has to produce in order to arrive at a correct answer. He then had 5 x 5 x 6 = 150 factors of intelligence respectively.

It is a complicated model, but he has raised the suggestion that divergent production, the creation of several good possibilities for a single stimulus (as opposed to only constructing one correct answer to a stimulus situation), can also be part of intelligence.

Planning, attention and simultaneous and successive theory (PASS)

Luria adopted the theory ‘plans, attention, simultaneity and succession', a general theory about cognitive processing. His approach focuses on the mechanisms that process information and is therefore also called the information processing theory. According to him, analysis provides strong evidence for distinguishing between two basic forms of integrative activity of the cerebral cortex, allowing different aspects of the outside world to be reflected. The theory contains three functional units in the brain, whereby the processing of information takes place from the lower units to the higher units:

1. The first part includes subcortical areas like the brainstem, midbrain, and thalamus. It allows us to regulate attentive processes and selective attention and to resist distractions.
2. The second part contains the sensory parts of the cerebral cortex (parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes). Their functions are more lateralized and include simultaneous and successive processing.
3. The third part is in the frontal lobes and is responsible for planning and engine output.

According to this theory, processing starts with attention and planning is the final step.

1. Simultaneous processing (of information): this is characterized by performing different mental activities simultaneously. An example for which you need this is for example drawing a cube, you need spatial insight, motor skills etc.
2. Sequential processing (of information): is necessary for mental activities where a correct sequence of activities is needed. This is necessary, for example, for remembering a series of numbers.

Finding tasks that can test these two ways of processing in their pure way is the challenge for applying this theory to intelligence.

Information processing theories of intelligence

These theories propose models on how people represent and process information mentally. It is useful to make the analogy of a computer. The architectural system (hardware) comprises the biological requirements for information processing, such as coding speed. It is quite impenetrable to change by the environment.

The executive system (software) is easily influenced by the environment and it includes components related to the environment that control the problem-solving capacity and leading functional components. An example is metacognition, thinking about thinking, which is important for learning and intelligence.

Gardner and the theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner drew up a number of criteria for an autonomous intelligence:

• Potential isolation due to brain damage
• The existence of exceptional individuals in an area
• Identifiable core operations
• Distinctive developmental history
• Evolutionary plausibility
• Support from experimental psychology
• Support from psychometric studies
• Susceptibility to symbol encoding

Gardner thus established seven natural intelligences:

1. Linguistic
2. Logical-mathematical
3. Spatial
4. Musical
5. Bodily-kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence includes the skills used by athletes, dancers, mime artists, etc. Personal intelligences include the ability to access both one's own feelings (intrapersonal) and the ability to notice and distinguish someone else’s moods, temperament, motivation, and intentions (interpersonal). People with musical intelligence can easily learn to play an instrument and make their own compositions.

Savants provide an important insight into the existence of different kinds of intelligences. A savant is someone who is mentally inadequate, but has developed himself in a certain area, such as music or art. The theory is compelling because of its simplicity, but the empirical validity is difficult to investigate.

Sternberg and the triarchic theory of successful intelligence

Sternberg has developed a theory that is called triarchic, because it emphasizes three aspects of intelligence.

Componential / analytical intelligence

Internal mental mechanisms responsible for intelligent behavior.

• Metacomponents or executive processes: these control the activities of the other intelligence processes, such as planning.
• Performance components: the processes that are used to perform a task or solve problems, such as working memory or syllogistic reasoning.
• Knowledge acquisition components: processes that are used in learning, such as the use of certain vocabulary in the right context.

Experiential / creative intelligence

• Ability to deal with novelty
• Ability to automize information processes

Contextual / practical intelligence

• Adaptation to the 'real world' environment: if you possess the skills needed for the culture in which you live.
• Selection of an appropriate environment: the ability to leave the environment you are in and to select an environment that is better suited to your talents and needs.
• Shaping of the environment: the skill to form the existing environment in such a way that it is more consistent with your needs.

For the theory, Sternberg has made the STAT (Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test), which also contains creative and practical questions.

Topic 5B Individual tests of intelligence and achievement

Intelligence testing is one of the major achievements of the field of psychology. The score of general intelligence is often not what researchers are interested in. If they intending to determine g, any test would do. Often, however, they are looking for specific intellectual functioning and therefore look at the results of subtests, so it is important that they use the test that best describes what they want to know. There are many intelligence tests and new ones are added every month. The following tests are likely to be used in 95% of the assessment cases.

Orientation

This chapter discusses the following intelligence tests:

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
• Stanford-Binet: Fifth Edition (SB5)

• Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4 (DTLA-4)
• Cognitive Assessment System-II (CAS-II)
• Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)

Wechsler Scales of Intelligence

The first intelligence test by Wechsler, the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, was released in 1939. He made sure that the test did not have the shortcomings of already existing tests. The existing tests were not available for adults, were too focused on manipulative words, were too focused on speed rather than accuracy, and the notion of mental age was irrelevant.

He drew up the new formula for IQ:

IQ = obtained score / expected mean score for age

He did this, because according to him IQ remains almost constant (IQ constancy), but intellectual skills can change over time. In addition, Wechsler hoped to use the test for psychiatric diagnoses. For this he distinguished between verbal and performance intelligence.

• Verbal> Performance (V>P): gave results for organic brain diseases such as psychosis and emotional disorders.
• Performance> Verbal (P>V): showed slight mental retardation in adolescents and adults.

Research has shown that there are many exceptions to this diagnostic rule, but it nevertheless showed that distinguishing between verbal understanding and perceptual reasoning (as we now know it) is useful in many areas, such as studying brain-behavioral relationships.

The later Wechsler tests were particularly successful because of the reliable content and formula of the first test, which meant that examiners, among other things, needed little training to switch to a new version.

The latest versions of Wechsler tests all contain the following common features:

• Thirteen to fifteen subtests that are used to measure intra-individual strengths and weaknesses rather than one global score.
• Empirically based scores and IQ scales. First it was subdivided into verbal IQ and performal IQ, but the latest versions have index scores in four areas:

1. Verbal comprehension
2. Perceptual reasoning
3. Working memory
4. Processing speed

• A common metric for IQ and index score, being an average IQ of 100 with standard deviation of 15. On a subtest this would be an average of 10 with standard deviation of about 3.
• Some of the same subtests for different test versions.

Wechsler subtests: description and analysis

Here the different subtests of the WISC-IV (children) and WAIS-IV (adults) are discussed.

• Information: this test tests factual knowledge about people, places and general phenomena. Most of these information questions are known when someone has grown up in a Western culture. This subtest also measures learning and memory skills, because one has to retrieve knowledge from memory. The information test is the best measure for general skills and relies heavily on the factor Verbal Understanding.
• Digit span: at digit span, participants get a series of digits which they then have to repeat (Digits Forward), have to repeat backwards (Digits Backwards) or put in the correct numerical order (Digits Sequencing). When the person is right, the next series that is a number longer, up to a maximum of 9 digits. Scores on this test can be influenced by anxiety or fatigue, which is often seen in psychiatric patients. The different types of test measure different skills, because repeating digits backwards requires more working memory and skills than forward, which is basically only repeating them.
• Vocabulary: in this test different words are mentioned after which the participant must tell what these words mean. They will then receive full scores if they mention all the characteristics of the word and some of the points if they have forgotten an important part. It is the second best measurement for general intelligence.
• Arithmetic: in this test calculation problems are verbally presented that the participants must answer. Some items can be tricky, because it must also be answered within a short time. Arithmetic charges the strongest on the factor memory.
• Compehension: this raises questions that do not have to do with factual knowledge, but where it is important to be able to explain some concept. An example is: 'What does the proverb mean: Better a bird in your hand, than ten in the air?' There is still a disagreement about whether this subtest has mainly to do with the social functioning of the participant and whether it therefore measures 'social intelligence'.
• Similarities: here the participant's ability is tested to separate important unimportant characteristics from objects, facts and ideas. For example, two objects are given (shirt and socks) after which they are asked where they are equal (common concept). The point is that the participant can distinguish the important equation from the unimportant equality (that they both start with the s).
• Letter-number sequencing: this gives the participant a series of letters and numbers, after which he first has to put the numbers and then the letters in the correct order. For example, the series R-3-B-5-Z-1-C should then be 1-3-5-BCRZ. This subtest, together with Digit Span and Arithmetic, measures the working memory.
• Picture completion: here images are shown in which the participants have to indicate which important part is missing. The test assumes that the participant has seen the object, so it can be bad for participants from a different culture.
• Picture concepts: this subtest is used in children. A row of pictures is shown and the child has to indicate which concept the pictures have in common. With each series the concept becomes more abstract and therefore more difficult to guess. This subtest is only in the WPPSI-IV and the WISC-IV.
• Block design: here participants must construct a two-dimensional image with three-dimensional blocks. It requires analysis of spatial relationship, visual-motor coordination and it is less susceptible to memory and previous experiences. In the more difficult series, bonus points can be earned when performing quickly.
• Matrix reasoning: here participants have to discover a pattern or relationship in a row of figures (simple) or in a 3x3 matrix (more difficult), where the last figure is missing, which has to be chosen from five choices. It mainly measures fluid intelligence.
• Object assembly: this is only a test for toddlers and preschoolers, where they get parts of a picture and have to put them together to get the big picture, like a mini-puzzle. This subtest only occurs in the WPPSI-III.
• Coding: this is a subtest where a number is tied to a certain symbol. After a few exercises, a series of numbers is given, after which the corresponding symbols must be given in that order. A number of trials must be done within two minutes. Encoding is unique, because it is the only Wechsler task that teaches a new task and tests it the same way.
• Symbol search: this is a subtest that measures processing speed, indicating whether a few symbols on the left are located between a larger group of symbols on the right.
• Cancellation: in this case, participants must cross out all animals on a large sheet of paper, standing between all non-animal objects. There are two trials: one randomized with the animals and one with a structured rows and columns of animals. In the WAIS-IV this test is more abstract and only two target stimuli are used.
• Visual puzzles: here six parts have to be chosen that form an example picture. It charges the strongest on the factor Perceptual Reasoning. This subtest only occurs in the WAIS-IV.
• Figure weights: this is part of the WAIS-IV that measures Perceptual Reasoning. There is a scale with figures that are missing on one side. The participant must choose from six options to keep the balance in balance. This subtest only occurs in the WAIS-IV.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)

The WAIS-IV is a significant revision on the WAIS-III. It has retained many old items, but has two new subtests, a simple structure and emphasizes index scores, allowing a sharper boundary to be drawn between discrete domains of cognitive functions. The WAIS-IV consists of 15 subtests, but only 10 core subtests are needed to calculate the IQ score and the index scores. The subtests are divided over the four index scores as follows, instead of only distinguishing between verbal and non-verbal:

• Verbal Comprehension Index

1. Similarities
2. Vocabulary
3. Information

• Perceptual Reasoning Index

1. Block design
2. Matrix Reasoning
3. Visual Puzzles

• Working memory Index

1. Digit Span
2. Arithmetic

• Processing speed Index

1. Symbol Search
2. Coding

The verbal comprehension index (VCI) is similar to the old verbal IQ concept. Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) is related to the former notion of Performance IQ. Verbal Understanding and Perceptual Reasoning are used today, because the concepts fit better in the factor analysis.

The Working Memory Index (WMI) consists of subtests that require attention and direct memory. Relatively low scores can therefore indicate concentration problems. The Processing Rate Index (PSI) consists of subtests that require rapid processing of visual information and is sensitive to many conditions. The WAIS-IV is stricter in its criteria than the previous three WAIS tests. In addition, this successor is useful for both the healthy population and the population with mental problems.

• Standardization: the standardization of the WAIS-IV was done in 13 different age groups from 16 years old with a total sample of 2200 adults. The sample was stratified on the variables gender, ethnicity, education and region. It was done with cooperative, healthy, English-speaking people without brain damage.
• Reliability: the WAIS-IV has good reliability in terms of split-half reliability for the index scores and the full IQ scores. This means that the WAIS-IV is also a good test for a special population in which only one index score needs to be examined.
• Validity: the WAIS-IV has a good criterion validity, because it has high correlations with existing intelligence tests. It also has good convergent and discriminant validity. The validity is also well proven by the strong overlap with the previous three editions of the Wechsler intelligence tests

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)

Several errors were found in the first version: in the standardization sample there was only one culture group (whites), ambiguities about scoring, inappropriate items for children and no use was made of women or African Americans in the pictorial content of items. This has all been adjusted in the WISC-IV.

The WISC-IV has 10 core subtests and 5 additional subtests. The core subtests are block design, similarities, digit span, picture concepts, coding, vocabulary, letter-number sequencing, matrix reasoning, comprehension and symbol search. The additional subtests are picture completion, cancellation, information, arithmetic and word reasoning.

The additional subtests are not used to calculate the general IQ scores, but may be useful firstly because of the important diagnostic information they provide. Secondly, they can serve as an alternative to a core subtest, when a child is not able to perform such a test, for example due to motor problems.

The standardization of the WISC-IV was good, because the agreement between the standardized sample and the data from the population register was almost perfect. This is the case, because 5.7% of the sample consisted of children who had certain characteristics, such as giftedness, learning disabilities, autism or motor problems.

The reliability of the WISC-IV is good and comparable with previous versions. The coefficients of the entire IQ score are around .90, but for each subtest the coefficients vary from .79 to .90.

The validity of the WISC-IV is also good. The correlations between the WISC-IV and the WISC-III with subtests rank from high in the .70 range to low in the .80 range. The correlation for the overall IQ score is higher, namely .89. The convergent validity and discriminant validity of the WISC-IV was also high.

By means of factor analysis, different indexes can also be ordered for the WISC-IV, also with an average of 100 and standard deviation of 15:

• Verbal Comprehension Index

1. Similarities
2. Vocabulary
3. Comprehension

• Perceptual Reasoning Index

1. Block design
2. Picture Concepts
3. Matrix Reasoning

• Working memory

1. Digit Span
2. Letter-Number Sequencing

• Processing speed

1. Coding
2. Symbol Search

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fifth Edition (SB5)

The versions for the fourth version of the Stanford-Binet Test could not be used for an analysis of the subtests. Only an overall IQ score was given.

The SB5 has five factors of intelligence that are divided over two domains, resulting in 10 subtests:

Before the test is taken, a routing procedure is carried out to estimate the general cognitive skills of the participant. It ensures that the number of items can be reduced during the test without introducing measurement errors. This is possible because the test is based on the item response theory and difficulty levels and other parameters are already known since the development phase.

The SB5 can be used for very young children up to gifted adults. The non-verbal subtests can be used well for people who do not have a good command of the language, such as immigrants or the deaf. An important characteristic of the SB5 is that there are items that can distinguish giftedness and mental retardation from the 'normal' IQ scores. In addition, we also looked at whether the test is fair when it comes to cultural, gender, and religious differences. This is the first test that looks at religion. Hearing-impaired people and people who speak poor English or have communication problems can also make this test. The factor on working memory contains both verbal and non-verbal memory which can offer a solution in research on children with ADHD.

The standardization was done at 4800 persons based on the American population register. The validity of the SB5 is good with correlations above .70. The robust correlations with the SB4 show that the SB5 is valid, but also more usable than the SB4. Because the SB5 is so useful for both extremes of the cognitive spectrum, it will be a good tool to test individual intelligence.

Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4 (DTLA-4)

The DTLA-4 is a test used for children between 6 and 17 years of age. With the test, 16 compositions are calculated, including general intelligence, optimal level, and 14 skills. It contains 10 subtests that are very similar to the Binet-Wechsler tests. The general mental skill composition is calculated using the standardized scores of the 10 subtests.

The optimal level composite is based on the four highest standard scores and shows how well the participant performs under optimal conditions. For the other 14 composite scores, combinations of certain subtests are used that together measure one of the following attributes:

• Linguistic (verbal vs. non-verbal)
• Attention (attention-enhanced vs. attention-reduced)
• Motoric (motor-enhanced vs. motor-reduced)
• Smooth intelligence vs . crystallized intelligence (Horn & Cattell)
• Simultaneous vs. successive (Das & Naglieri)
• Associative vs. cognitive (Jensen)
• Verbal vs. Performal (Wechsler)

They are used to give contrasting composites with significant differences that can result in a diagnostic explanation. For example, someone who scores well on attention-reduced tasks, but very badly on attention-enhanced tasks, probably has attention problems.

A problem with this test is that there is not enough empirical evidence for the composites. Another problem is that there are more composites than subtests, so that the composites will have high intercorrelations. So it is a good test for general intelligence but not for the composites. Reliability and validity are okay.

Cognitive Assessment System-II (CAS-II)

The CAS-II is based on the PASS theory of Das & Naglieri discussed earlier. The test is for children from 5 to 17 years. The test consists of 12 subtests and takes 60 minutes. There is a smaller version of 8 subtests but it is not recommended to use them. For each scale certain subtests are available:

Planning

• Matched numbers: the child must underline the two identical numbers in a number of rows of 6 numbers.
• Planned codes: a code is learned and then this is tested by having to enter the missing codes.
• Planned connections: lines must be drawn between points in order of alphabet and number (1-A-2-B-3-C, etc.).

Attention

• Expressive attention: this is a kind of Stroop task, in which the color of the words should be mentioned.
• Number detection: the child must underline specific digits, but only if they are printed in bold font.
• Responsive attention: first, the child underlines letter combinations that are physically the same (TT, not Tt), and then combinations that are the same in name (Bb, not Ba).

Simultaneous processing

• Non-verbal matrices: a logical shape must be found in a 3x3 matrix so that the empty box at the bottom right can be entered.
• Verbal spatial relations: six pictures with figures are shown and the child has to find the relationship in response to a specific question (e.g.: point out the square to the right of the circle).
• Figure memory: a drawing is shown and then the child has to recognize the drawing in a larger and more complex picture.

Successive processing

• Word series: a series of two to nine words must be repeated.
• Sentence Repetition: sentences must be read aloud and then repeated, when they can no longer be seen.
• Sentences questions or speech rates (8 to 17 years): questions are asked about sentences that need to be answered.

The scores of children with ADHD exceeded the scores that were expected based on already known information about the scores of children with ADHD.

The difference between black and white children is minimal when checking for background. In addition, high correlations between scores and school performance were found. The test is therefore useful for special education. It is a promising test that deserves to be used more often. The reliability and validity are very good.

Kaufman Brief Intelligence (KBIT-2)

There are two major drawbacks to the aforementioned tests:

1. The tests take a lot of time, at least one hour.
2. The person who takes the test must be well trained to be able to administer the tests properly.

Kaufman then developed an easy and short test to solve these problems. The test consists of a verbal scale containing two types of items: verbal knowledge and riddles and a non-verbal scale consisting of matrix items (2x2 and 3x3 figurative analogies).

This test is useful for people between 4-90 years and can be taken in about 20 minutes. Another M = 100 and SD = 15 is used. Kaufman makes it clear that this test can not replace the traditional tests, it is more of an instrument for screening, for example for the following purposes:

• Making a quick estimate of intelligence where accurate scores are not essential.
• Estimation of verbal versus non-verbal intelligence.
• Re-evaluating the intellectual status of previously tested people.
• Screening students who may benefit from placement in gifted programs.
• Screening students with a high risk who may need further assessment.
• To obtain a quick estimate of intelligence when treating adults in insitutions

Individual tests of achievement

Where the intelligence tests measure the broadness of a person's mental skills, achievement tests measure what a person has learned in school or a course. The focus here is on individual tests, so they are conducted 1 on 1.

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-II (KTEA-II)

The KTEA-II is used for children from 4.5 years to 25 years. There is a short version of 3 subtests that can be used for people who are even older than 90. For the mapping of learning problems only the full version is recommended. It consists of eight subtests divided into four areas:

Reading

• Letter and word recognition
• Reading understanding

Mathematics

• Math Concepts and applications
• Math computation

Written language

• Written expression
• Spelling

Oral language

• Listening comprehension
• Spoken expression

Three composite scores can be calculated: reading, math and written language. In addition, a total score can also be calculated. For diagnostic purposes there are also more subtests for reading skills. For older children this test takes 80 minutes, for younger children 30 minutes.

Nature and assessment of learning disabilities

A learning disability can be described as a serious difference between the general intelligence and specific performances in one of the following areas: spoken expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic level reading, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation and mathematical reasoning. A serious difference was described as one or more standard deviations between a general intelligence and a specific performance. However, this definition was too strict, so that children who did have a learning disability did not come through selection procedures but did need more help.

The new definition of learning disability described it as intrinsic to the individual, a dysfunction of the central nervous system being the cause, and that it can reach into adulthood. With this definition a better separation was made between skill and performance.

Since 2004 there has been a new approach to identifying learning problems. No more attention is paid only to the discrepancy model, but also to the response to an intervention (RTI). Scientifically developed interventions are being used more frequently. This method is therefore not only about identifying, but also about increasing the capacity of the school system to be able to respond to the different needs of the pupils with disabilities.

The approach consists of several steps and starts at the beginning of the year with a general screening of all children to see who is at risk. The children who stand out will receive an intervention for 8 weeks, and if they do not catch up, another intervention will be used again for 8 weeks. If it still does not work, it will be examined on an individual basis where the problems come from and the child may be placed in special education.

Ultimately, there are five characteristics to indicate a learning disability:

1. A learning disability is a discrepancy within a person in terms of cognitive functioning. But it is not just a difference between a general IQ score and performance test scores.
2. The learning disability should not be determined by other limiting conditions, such as retardation or visual impairment.
3. A learning disability is heterogeneous, so there are many different variants of it.
4. A learning disability often arises early in childhood and can exist into adulthood. This is investigated by means of longitudinal studies. It is a developmental phenomenon.
5. People with learning disabilities often experience social and emotional problems that are often just as serious as deficits in academic performance. These problems can also exist in adulthood.

The cause sometimes lies, as with dyslexia, in the brain. In addition, the left hemisphere is limited. Restriction of the right hemisphere involves problems in non-verbal tasks. Often, however, the cause of a learning disability is not known.

It is clear, however, that learning disabilities have a major impact on the lives of the children. That is why individual performance tests are best for measuring this. These tests are taken individually and measure academic skills. This is the point where there are problems. It is often about identifying specific problem areas and this should be taken into account when choosing and administering a test.

How are 'special populations' tested? - Chapter 7

Topic 7A: Infant and preschool assessment

Assessment of the infant capacities

The baby and toddler period (preschool period) lasts from birth to about 6 years old. In this, children develop basic reflexes and motor skills. However, some children lag behind and therefore, parents want to know how far the child is behind and whether their cognitive emotional development is going well. On the other hand, there are also children whose development is far ahead of others. Assessments for infants and toddlers help to investigate this.

The 'Neonatal Behavorial Assessment Scale' (NBAS) is used to investigate the behaviors of newly born children. 28 behaviors are scored on a 9-point scale. Examples are reaction to light, cuddiness and orientation to inanimate visual stimuli. 18 reflexes are also controlled, such as the Babinski reflex, sucking reflex, grasp reflex or the rooting reflex. Finally, the qualities of responsiveness of the weak children are tested with, among other things, the quality of alertness, general irritability, and emotional response.

The NBAS is used as feedback for the parents, so it does not have a real scoring table. The developers want to emphasize that a close parent-child relationship is most important. There are researchers who have issued a scoring system for the NBAS with 7 clusters: habituation, orientation, motor performance, arousal/lability, regulation, autonomic stability and reflexes. The reliability of this scoring system is low, so one has to be careful with interpretation. The development of babies can change quickly and strongly.

The Bayley-III is available for children from 1 to 42 months. The test consists of 5 domains with representative scales, namely:

• Cognitive scale: 91 items, including sensory accuracy, perceptive skills, attention, puzzle solving, matching of colors, counting and investigative and manipulating behavior. This scale has no subscales.
• Language scale: 48 items, includes receptive and expressive communication, such as recognition of sounds, non-verbal expression, identification of action pictures, naming objects, answering questions and following simple instructions. This scale has three subscores: expressive communication, receptive communication and language control score.
• Motor scale: 138 items, includes gross and fine motor skills, such as manipulation of objects, functional use of the hands and motor planning. This scale has three subscores: gross motor skills, fine motor skills and a general motor score.
• Social-emotional scale: 35 items, includes interactive and purposeful use of emotions, expressing feelings and connecting ideas and emotions with each other. This scale has no separate subtests.
• Adaptive behavior scale: parents fill in how the child scores on components such as communication, health and safety, self-care. This scale has a subscore for each component.

The Bayley-III does not follow an overall score, because this can be misleading due to the many skills that are tested. The test is precisely meant to use scale scores for diagnosis and assessment. The reliability of the test is only reasonable, because it is nevertheless a test for young children, which develop quickly, which makes later test scores different (especially for fine motor skills). The validity is good with correlations between .72 and .79.

The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment Clinical Form (DECA-C) is made as an assessment for children from 2 years to about 6 years with social or emotional problems. The test focuses on the protective factors of (the environment of) the child who can partly absorb the problems. The test also contains problem scales.

The test is based on the 'resilience theory' which states that protective factors exist on three levels: environmental, family and within-child. The protective factors can be formed into a Total Protective Factor Score by means of three scales:

• Initiative: investigates the child's ability to think independently and behave according to his needs. Items resemble statements like 'the child gets things by himself'.
• Self-control: examines the capacities of the child to experience and express his different emotions in a socially desirable way. Items resemble statements like "the child can control his temperament".
• Attachment: examines the formation of strong and long-lasting relationships with parents, family and teachers. Items resemble statements like "the child accepts the comfort of adults when he is upset."

The problem factors can be formed into a Total Problem Factor Score by means of four scales:

• Attention problems: examines the child's ability to focus on a task and not be distracted by the environment. Items resemble "the child loses concentration quickly."
• Aggression: measures aggressive or destructive behaviors towards other people or things. Items resemble "the child destroys personal property of others".
• Withdrawal / depression: investigates self-reflection and emotional / social withdrawal. Items resemble 'the child seems to live in his or her own world'.
• Problems with emotional control: measure the problems with controlling negative emotions related to purposeful behavior. Items resemble "The child is upset when things do not go his or her way."

Several studies showed that the reliability of the DECA-C is good. The test also appears to be valid and useful.

Of course, while researching young children one must take into account the troublesome fact that they are still in full development, and thus often do not listen to instructions. This makes the investigation very difficult.

Assessment of preschool intelligence

When examining the intelligence of young children, it must be taken into account that low scores do not directly mean that the child has low cognitive skills. It can also be due to the concentration of the child, or to, for example, environmental factors.

The following three tests are intended to measure intelligence in children.

DAS-II

The Differential Ability Scales-II (DAS-II) can be used for three age categories, but here we focus on preschool children aged 3 to 6 years. The DAS-II consists of ten core subtests, used for measuring cognitive skills, and 10 diagnostic subtests, used for additional information about readiness for school and information processing.

The core subtests correspond with the g factor of intelligence and contain three clusters for verbal power, non-verbal reasoning power and spatial power. From this, a General Conceptual Ability (GCA) and a Special Nonverbal Composite (SNC) can be calculated. The GCA is seen as a precursor of the IQ.

The diagnostic subtests of the DAS-II are only used for clinical analyzes and are less influenced by the g factor. They provide useful information for discovering learning difficulties and the readiness for school, and can therefore also be used to replace core subtests.

The DAS-II is a reliable measuring instrument due to the high reliability coefficients, but as is often the case with research on young children, test-retest reliability studies over several weeks are less high, due to the development of the children. The validity is good, given the high correlations with comparable tests.

WPPSI-IV

The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale or Intelligence-IV (WPPSI-IV) is used for children aged 2 to 7 years, but here only the test for older preschool children is discussed: from 4 to 7 years. An advantage of this test is that child-friendly and playful stimulus material is offered.

There are five primary index scales, each with two subtests that summarize the cognitive skills of children. The complete WPPSI-IV includes 13 subtests, but only 6 (the italic) are required to calculate an IQ score.

• Verbal comprehension, subtests: information and similarities.
• Visual spatial, subtests: block design and object assembly.
• Fluid reasoning, subtests: matrix reasoning and picture concepts.
• Working memory: subtests: Picture memory and zoo locations.
• Processing speed: bug search and cancellation.

In addition, there are four subordinate index scales: vocabulary acquisition, nonverbal, general ability and cognitive proficiency. These index scales can be useful in special circumstances, such as the assessment of deaf children or children with slow processing.

Early SB5

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales for Early Childhood (Early SB5) combines the SB5's sub-tests with new Test Observation Checklists (TOC) and parent reports. These are used to get an idea of ​​the child's behavior during the test. A certain behavior, such as not answering a question, can have multiple meanings in children. The child could actually not know the answer, but the child could also be bored, afraid or distracted.

The TOC consists of a part that looks at the characteristics of the child and a part that looks at specific behaviors of the child. Characteristics of the child include: motor skills, activity levels, attention / distractibility, impulsivity, language.

Specific behaviors include: consistency in performance, mood, frustration tolerance / aggressiveness, change in mental set, motivation, fear of failure, degree of cooperativeness or refusal, anxiety, need for redirection, parental behaviors, representativeness of test behaviors.

Practical utility of infant and pre-school assessment

Test scores obtained in the first two years of life often seem to have minimal predictive validity. The important role that these tests nevertheless play will be discussed after a review of predictive studies.

Predictive validity

It is often found that there is a positive correlation between the preschool results and the results of children when they are at school. However, this correlation is not very strong. The correlation only becomes stronger when the children are 19 months old. Only then do the results have a strong, significant and meaningful correlation with the later IQ. The following rule applies: the older the child is during testing, the stronger the relationship with the later IQ. Around the 8^th year of life IQ remains fairly stable. The results show that tests with infants have a low predictive validity and with preschool children or toddlers an average.

Practical utility of infant scales

The main reason for tests in infants is screening for developmental disorders, because it requires early intervention and thus ensures better outcomes later in life. Exceptionally low scores on the Bayley test, especially on the mental scale, can predict mental disability. Furthermore, for tested 'risky' infants the predictive validity is higher than for normal children. It is therefore useful to test infants because it can predict disability later in life.

Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence (FTII)

Lewis found that traditional tests overlooked early information processing processes that can predict cognitive functioning. For example, in his test visual habituation for new stimuli is examined in infants aged 3 months. The correlations with results at later ages were average, which means that cognitive functioning can be predicted early on.

Fagan developed his FTII with inspiration from this test. A face is shown to a baby, and later a similar face is shown, or the same face, but then the face looks differently. It is measured how long the baby looks at the new face. The reliability is high, due to a large inter-assessment agreement. The predictive validity of the FTII is strongly doubted because low correlations are found with the results for cognitive functioning in later life. That is why FTII is seen as a screening instrument for developmental delays rather than as a predictor of general intelligence.

Screening for school readiness

To define what school readiness is, five models are used:

• Maturationist model: according to this model, age is the best way to determine whether a child is ready to go to school, because it is the best indicator for the development of the child.
• Environmental model: here the readiness is based on what skills the child has in social experiences, so parents have to decide on this.
• Constructivist model: here a child is ready for school if it can not only interact well with teachers, but also with other knowledgeable peers and adults, so several people have to co-decide.
• Cumulative-skills model: here the readiness is determined by looking at how many skills the child already possesses that are needed to learn fundamental subjects, such as math and reading.
• Ecological model: here the readiness is seen not only within the child itself, but as an interaction between the child's developments and the child's environments. From this follows a complex and qualitative evaluation.

Screening tests must be quick and simple, but they may have certain errors. There may be false-positive children who fail the test, but who do not really lack anything. And there may be false-negative children who do pass the test, but actually have a developmental deficit. Glascoe and Shapiro (2005) gave five pitfalls in screening tests:

• Wait until the problem is observable.
• Ignore screening results.
• Rely on informal methods.
• Use of inappropriate tests.
• Assume that services do not exist or are limited.

A good screening test should meet the following criteria:

• The primary purpose is screening, so do not investigate, diagnose or predict.
• Screening is provided in areas such as motor, language, cognitive, social and emotional functioning.
• Test-retest reliability must be at least .70.
• Concurrent validity must be at least .70.
• Sensitivity and specificity for positives and negatives should be at least .70.
• The test should last less than 30 minutes.
• The test must be able to screen children from different cultures.
• A minimum of expertise is needed to take the test.

DIAL-4

The Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning-4 (DIAL-4) is a fast and efficient screening test for ages 2 to 5 years. It tests five areas. Three of them are important development domains: motor, concepts and language. The other two (self-help and social-emotional) are filled in by the parents and teacher of kindergarten.

The scoring leaves room for subjective interpretations, which reduces the reliability of the test. Using norm scores, it can be said whether a child scores average in an area or if he has a 'potential delay’. The reliability is reasonably good. The content validity and criterion validity were also high. The construct validity was tested to see if the three areas matched the items and that was true.

Existing scepticism is mainly about the practical use of the DIAL-4. Sensitivity figures ranged from .73 to .82, which is high, but that still means that 18 to 27 percent of potentially delayed children are not recognized as such. Specificity numbers ran from .82 to .86, which means that 14 to 18 percent of normal children are screened as potentially delayed.

Denver-II

This test consists of 125 items divided into four areas: personal-social, fine motor adjustments, language skills and rough motor skills. The test does not produce a developmental quotient, but a score that is described as normal, questionable or abnormal. The reliability is very high with numbers above the .90. However, the predictive validity of the Denver-II is questionable, because the sensitivity is high, but the specificity is not high; many normal children were labeled as doubtful or abnormal.

HOME

The Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) is used to observe the physical and social environment of the children while they are at home. The HOME followed after the SES. It was stated as a hypothesis that children of a higher social class enjoy a richer and warmer environment. This was indirectly measured with work and education from the parents.

However, the HOME allows one to directly investigate whether certain crucial interactions and experiences are present. It measures the quality and quantity of stimulation and support for cognitive, social and emotional developments that are available at home.

The researcher scores dichotomically whether certain items are present or not. These are subdivided into six subscales:

• Emotional and verbal responsivity of the parent
• Acceptance of the child’s behavior
• Organization of the environment
• Provision of appropriate play materials
• Parent involvement with child
• Variety of stimulation

The reliability of the HOME is reasonable. Some subscales have few items, so for these the reliability can not be very high. The interobserver agreement is high, as are the internal consistencies. The validity of the HOME is also average. The correlations with the SES should be significant, but not fully related, and studies showed that this is indeed the case.

The HOME is not only promising in research, but also as a practical instrument for interventions.

Topic 7B Testing persons with disabilities

Non-language tests

These are tests that have as little written or spoken language between examiner and examinee as possible. The Leiter-R test is a non-verbal test for children aged 2 to 21 who do not need a spoken language and can therefore be used for children who do not speak the language, children with autism, brain damage and speech or hearing problems. Children must match small cards with figures with an example. The Leiter-R test has 20 subtests divided over two test batteries: Visualization & Reasoning and Memory & Attention.

It is a reliable test with numbers above .90. Because the Leiter-R is also only non-verbal, it can be used for different target groups. The empirical studies support the use of the test, because it proved useful for medically weak children, low-functioning children with autism and children with a language deficiency. The validity was also high, namely r= .80 (correlation with another measure of nonverbal intelligence).

Many children enjoy drawing human figures and can do so routinely, so Florence Goodenough (1926) invented the Draw-A-Man test reviewed by Harris in 1963. However, this was not entirely non-verbal, because the instructions were given orally. The goal was to measure intelligent development, so the more detailed the drawing was, the better the score.

Naglieri used this technique and developed thein 1988 Draw A Person test (DAP), adding a quantitative scoring system. The DAP is praised for its clear scoring, strong reliability and good standardization, but the validity is less good. It does not effectively identify children with learning disabilities and developmental defects.

The Hiskey-Nebraska Test of Learning Aptitude (H-NTLA) is a non-linguistic test and is used for children aged 3 to 17 years. It consists of 12 subtests, from which a Deviant Learning Quotient (LQ) is calculated. The reliability is high, but becomes less after a number of years. The validity is reasonable, given the correlations with other performance tests.

The Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-4 (TONI-4) is a non-linguistic test for people aged 6 to 90 years. It consists of 60 abstract figures in which the participants have to discover relationships between a number of figures. The test has three scoring methods: age comparisons, percentile grades and TONI-4 quotients (average 100, sd 15). The reliability is good (> .90). Furthermore, the TONI-4 is recommended as an intelligence test for people with poor language skills.

Nonreading and motor-reduced tests

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-IV (PPVT-4) is useful for people who can not verbally express themselves and for people who have weakened motor conditions. The test has two parallel versions, four of which have practice plates and 228 testing plates that contain pictures. The tester pronounces a stimulus word and the person must designate the picture that best suits it.

The reliability is high, but is still disappointing among children of foreign origin. The validity of the PPVT-4 is good, but only as a measuring instrument for vocabulary and not as a measuring instrument for general intelligence.

Testing persons with visual impairments

People who are legally blind, who see less than 10% in the right eye, need special tests to be properly examined. The Wechsler test that has been converted for this purpose is the Haptic Intelligence Scale for the Adult Blind (HISAB). It consists of six subtests of Digit Symbols, Block Design, Object Assembly and Picture Completion. The remaining two are Arithmetic sums and Matrix Reasoning using a pattern board.

Another instrument is the Blind Learning Aptitude Test (BLAT), for children aged 6 to 16 years. This test consists of six subtests that work with a kind of braille, also consisting of dots and lines. .

The Intelligence Test for Visually Impaired Children (ITVIC) replaces the nonverbal subtests of IQ tests requiring intact vision with tests that require only sensation, so-called haptic subtests. The verbal subtests remain as usual. This is for children from 6 to 15 years.

Testing people who are deaf or hard of hearing

A test in sign language can not always be the solution, because not everyone has the same sign language. Using someone who translates into sign language can be bad for validity because the translator can change the content unconsciously. That is why it is best for the examiner to be proficient in standard sign language, so that the test remains standardized. The Wechsler tests are best used for deaf or hearing-impaired people.

Assessment of adaptive behaviour in intellectual disability

It is difficult to investigate intellectually disabled people. Someone is intellectually disabled if his IQ is below 75. Intellectual disability is indicated on a continuum of mild, medium, severe and very serious. In addition, the person must also have difficulty with adjustments of behavior in conceptual, social and practical skills.

These skills are examined with different measuring scales. The Scale of Independent Behavior-Revisted (SIB-R) consists of 259 items divided over 14 subscales divided into four clusters: motor skills, social and communication skills, personal life skills and social skills. The scores from these four clusters give an Independence Score. In addition, the SIB-R indicates whether there are problem behaviors and how serious they are.

The SIB-R thus gives a good picture of how the person functions in real life at home, at school and in public places. In addition, standardization, reliability and validity are also sufficient.

The Inventory for Client and Agency Planning (ICAP) is used for children and adults who have become dependent from birth or later in life. The focus is on determining which kind of care is needed. The test is completed by a care provider and there is also room to indicate problem behavior and maladaptive behavior. The advantage of this instrument is that there is a Service Score that indicates how high the urgency is for attention, supervision and training for the person. The lower the score, the higher the urgency.

Lastly, there is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS-II) which provides an evaluation in the following areas: communication, daily living skills, socialization and motor skills. The predictive validity of the scale is good.

Assessment of autism spectrum disorders

Autism is not a single disorder, but multiple disorders in a spectrum. People with autism differ from each other, but all have difficulties with social skills, communication skills and flexible behavior. In addition, people with autism often lack empathy.

A measuring instrument for autism is the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) for 16 to 30 months old children. It is a checklist of 23 items that indicates that the child may be autistic. The M-CHAT, however, has a high false-positive ratio, but that can be acceptable for the number of children who are well diagnosed. It is very important that children with autism are detected early to help them at the earliest possible age.

Another frequently used instrument is the Baby and Infant Screen for Children with Autism Traits, BISCUIT-1. It consists of 71 items on a 3-point scale for toddlers aged 17 to 37 months. The BISCUIT-1 is also a good measuring instrument for discovering autism.

Where do personality tests originate? - Chapter 8

Topic 8A Personality theories and projective techniques

Personality: An overview

Personality is a vague concept, but we can distinguish two characteristics. First, each person is consistent to a certain level, we have coherence characteristics and action patterns that occur repeatedly. Second, each person is distinctive to a certain level. Personality describes the differences in behavior between people and the consistency of behavior within a person.

Psychoanalytic theories

Psychoanalysis was a creation by Sigmund Freud. Freud developed his general theory of psychological functioning during the investigation of hysteria. His theory is about the unconscious as a foundation of psychological functioning. He said that our unconscious mind consists of thoughts and wishes that are too unacceptable to enter consciousness. The most significant motivations are therefore not in our consciousness. Freud also thought that these motivations came out in a hidden way in dreams. Early in the twentieth century, a large range of tests has been developed to expose Freud’s unconscious, such as inkblot testing, word association approaches and storytelling tests. These tests could supposedly expose the unconscious by interpreting the ambiguous and unstructured answers of the client in the right way. These tests have also had a major impact on personality tests.

According to Freud, the mind consists of three parts:

1. Id: is completely in your unconscious mind and is the part that concerns instinctual need, such as eating, drinking, sexual gratification and the avoidance of pain. The id has one goal and that is to meet these needs immediately according to the pleasure principle. This principle means that there is an impulse towards the immediate fulfillment of the need without taking into account values, right or wrong, or morality (this is called the pleasure principle). The id also has no logic or sense of time (we are born with it).
2. Ego: this is our consciousness. The goal of the ego is to mediate between the id and the reality. It is part of the id and a servant of it. The ego is therefore largely conscious and works according to the reality principle. It seeks realistic and safe ways to discharge the impulses coming from the id (this develops just after birth).
3. Superego: the ethical part of our personality that develops in the first 5 years of our lives. The ego and superego have to compete with each other in order to obtain gratification or not. The superego is about the social standards of right and wrong that we learn from our parents. The superego is partly conscious, but largely unconscious. It tries to suppress the actions of the id and ego and its biggest weapon is to blame. The ego must therefore not only find a safe and realistic way to meet needs, but also a morally correct way to avoid punishment from the superego. The superego also has to do with the ideal ego. The ego measures itself with this ideal image and tries to get as close to it as possible. The ideal contains our goals and aspirations. When we fail to achieve our ideal, we can feel guilty and inferior.

The ego can do its work by having access to various mental strategies called defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms have three general characteristics. First, they supress fear that arises from conflicting demands of the id, superego and reality. Fear and defense mechanisms are complementary concepts for Freud. Secondly, defense mechanisms all operate unconsciously, even though they are carried out by the conscious ego. Third, they distort the inner and outer reality, so that fear can be reduced.

Psychotic defense mechanisms are the least healthy because they distort reality extremely. They include the denial of reality and the extreme distortion of reality (delusions). The second group of mechanisms is 'acting out' and consists of unadaptive behaviors, such as aggressive or impulsive behavior. Borderline mechanisms, the third group, ensure that the image of others (or of the self) changes from very good to very bad. They include the splitting of personality traits and projective identification. The fourth group are neurotic mechanisms and they include small changes of reality. Use is made of repression and displacement. Obsessive mechanisms are common and include, for example, the isolation of affect or intellectualization. The last group, 'mature' mechanisms, have the least change of reality and appear as convenient virtues. They include behaviors such as altruism, humor, suppression, anticipation or sublimation.

A test has been issued to score these defense mechanisms: The Defense Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS). It is scored quantitatively and an Overall Defensive Functioning Score is issued. Instruments such as the DMRS can provide empirical validation for psychoanalytic theories, but their use requires a lot of training and time.

Type theories of personality

Friedman and Rosenman examined psychic variables that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. They concluded that people with a Type A behavioral pattern are more susceptible to this type of disease. Type A persons are always uncertain, regardless of their performance, often do not care about the feelings of competitors, are hostile and quickly irritated. They also feel a kind of pressure to have things done quickly. They often use multitasking. Several studies have been done to find further evidence that type-A behaviors are associated with an increased risk of CHD, but there are several results. The strongest evidence is found for white working people.

However, several studies have shown that Type A behavior is not a single risk factor for cardiovascular disease, but that it is more specific components of type A behavior that can cause this. The behavior can be measured by means of interviews or questionnaires. Questionnaires are less good, because non-verbal behavior can not be noticed, even though these are often signs of type A behavior.

Phenomenological theories of personality

Rogers has had the most influence within this approach. His contribution to personality theory, known as self-theory, has been extended and is admired by many psychology students. In addition, he helped to make the Q-technique popular.

This technique is a procedure for studying changes in the self-concept. The test consists of many cards where statements arise. The client must then, out of 100 of these cards, pile 9 stacks for which the amount of cards per stack is fixed, to create a kind of normal distribution. The cards that are most fitting to the client must be placed on one side and the cards that describe him least on the other side. The cards that he is indifferent about or can not decide on end up in the middle. The researcher can form the items himself according to the needs of the client. The scoring of this test is done by comparing the distribution with an already established standard. The test can also be scored as Rogers did: comparing an examinee’s self-sort with his or her ideal sort. The discrepancy is then used as an index for adjustment. His clients had to divide the stack twice with the following instructions: 1) self-sort, sort the cards to describe yourself as you see yourself today. 2) Ideal sort, sort the cards now to describe the ideal person, the person as you would like to be.

Behavioral and social learning theories

An important assumption is that many of the behaviors that characterize personality are taught. Behaviorists state that the environment forms and maintains behavior. They fundamentally disagree with the role that cognitions play in behavior. Social learning theories state that we learn expectations and rules about the environment and not just stimulus-response connections. Modern social learning theories state that cognitions influence actions.

Rotter developed the Internal - External Scale (IE Scale) to measure the internal / external locus of control. The locus of control refers to the source of things that happen to people. The IE Scale thus measures whether the participants feel that they have control over events (internal locus of control) or that the control does not lie with them (external locus of control). An internal locus is often more positive than an external locus of control.

Bandura developed the concept of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is about the extent to which people think they are able to respond / act on certain situations. It explains why good knowledge does not always deliver efficient actions. He has also drawn up measuring scales for self-efficacy, in which participants must indicate how well they find themselves functioning on certain tasks.

Trait conceptions of personality

A trait is every way in which an individual differs from another in the long term. The theories about this differ or they classify personality into categories or dimensions. Cattell distinguished between 'surface traits' and 'source traits'." Surface traits are obvious aspects of personality that are easy to see in behavior. 'Source traits' are the stable and constant sources of behavior. They are less visible, but more important for explanation of behavior. He analyzed underlying personality traits through factor analysis. This resulted in 16 personal traits with which he drew up the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

The five-factor model of personality states that five dimensions form the basis for personality. They have been explained by means of a fundamental lexical hypothesis: terms of personality traits have remained in the language because they provide important information about our interactions with others. In addition, there is also evolutionary support for this theory. The 5 traits contain differences between individuals related to basic evolutionary functions such as survival and reproduction. According to Goldbert, people ask themselves 5 questions when it comes to their interaction with others:

1. Is X active and dominant or passive and a follower?
2. Is X agreeable?
3. Can I rely on X?
4. Is X crazy or stable?
5. Is X smart or stupid?

All these evaluations have, directly or indirectly, something to do with survival and reproduction. They also correspond to the 5 character traits.

In English the dimensions can be remembered with the acronym OCEAN:

1. Openness to Experience
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreblenessen
5. Neuroticismtests have emerged from

Several personality tests have been inspired by this, such as the NEO-PI-R and the NEO-FFI. There are various comments on trait approaches to personality. Firstly, it is not clear whether they cause behavior or only describe behavior. Secondly, the theories have a low predictive validity.

The projective hypotheses

In projective tests, participants are offered unclear stimuli and must respond with their own constructions. The projective hypothesis states that personal interpretation of ambiguous stimuli reflects the subconscious needs, motives and conflicts of the participant. Projective tests must be able to derive underlying personality processes from this. They are categorized into association tests, construction tests, completion tests, and expression tests.

Association techniques

The best-known association test is the Rorschach test, in which participants see pictures with ink stains and have to say what they see in them. A system has been developed for this called the Rorschach Performance Assessment (R-PAS). It defines exactly how the test should be taken, scored and interpreted. Thus the test is well standardized. In addition, interrater correlations show that the test is reliable.

However, validity is questionable. One study found correlations between subscore complexity and coping skills and thus demonstrates the validity of the test. Others argue that formal scoring is nonsensical, and that the test is only good as an addition to a diagnostic interview. The answers can give insight into personal, illogical and strange associations.

In addition, there are also other valid scoring systems for the Rorschacht test. The Rorschach Prognostic Rating Scale (RPRS) has a complicated point system where points are given with good answers and deducted with bad answers. The RPRS indicates the final scores in terms of how successful a treatment will be.

The TDI is especially useful in patients with mental disorder, ranging from slightly confusing thoughts to bizarre, schizophrenic disorganization. The TDI scores the answers to how strange and incoherent they are.

In spite of its extensive scoring systems, the Rorschach test is very controversial. In 1980, researchers conducted a study into susceptibility to faking. Informed and uninformed students, who pretended to have schizophrenia, were compared to persons who actually had schizophrenia. It turned out that the informed students were diagnosed more often than the real patients (72 versus 48 percent) and 42% of the uninformed students were diagnosed. The test was once developed for children, but is now mainly used in adults.

Completion techniques

In sentence-completion, participants receive 40-100 stems consisting of unfinished sentences and have to complete them. These sentences may contain certain themes that are thus unconsciously described. The tests can be scored subjectively and qualitatively as well as objectively and quantitatively.

The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is for high school students, students and adults. In the objective scores, each answer receives a score of 0 (positive addition) to 6 (negative addition). The reliability is good, even for people with little psychological knowledge. The validity is also good, because a certain cut-off score seems to predict the possible pathology of the participant.

A problem is, as with other self-reports, that you only find out what the client wants you to know and a single score can never include the nuances of personal functioning.

Construction techniques

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 30 images on different topics and themes. The images are in black and white and one is blank. Some images are only used for a particular target group, such as adult, adult, male, female or a combination of these.

20 images exist for each target group. The participant must then tell a story about what happens on the image. It is often seen that certain themes recur in the stories. These recurring themes then say something about the person. There are many scoring systems, but usually it comes down to the qualitative interpretation of the test taker. The fact that there is no standardized way makes it possible that this test can only be used as a supplement. It is difficult to say anything about psychometric characteristics of this test because there are so many scoring systems. In general, the TAT has a low test-retest reliability (.28). In addition, client's answers are often interpreted intuitively and subjectively and this can quickly lead to over-diagnosis. The test has been extensively used for research purposes.

The Picture Projective Test (PPT) was an improvement on the TAT, because other images were used that are less obscure and depressing. The images used for this had to meet 4 criteria:

• The image had to promise a meaningful projective material.
• Most, but not all, images had to contain more than one human character.
• Approximately half of the images had to show positive affective expressions in the persons depicted.
• Approximately half of the images had to contain people who move and are not simply sitting or lying down.

It also appeared that the participants tell more positive stories at the PPT. In addition, the PPT puts more emphasis on interpersonal themes instead of intra-personal themes and therefore also more emphasis on healthy personality adjustment.

Compared with the TAT, the PPT was better at distinguishing between psychotic patients and normal / depressive participants. However, there must be more research into the psychometric qualities of this test.

For children there is the Children's Apperception Test (CAT). This test consists of 10 plates and is suitable for children between 3 and 10 years. The images are animals in a typical human setting (CAT-A). The idea behind this is that children can identify better with animals than with people. A version with people (CAT-H) is available for older children. There is no fixed way for scoring and there is no statistical information about validity and reliability. The diagnosis is made on the basis of 10 variables that are included in each story:

1. Main theme
2. Main hero
3. Main needs and drives for hero
4. Conception of environment
5. Perception of parental, contemporary and junior figures
6. Conflicts
7. Anxieties
8. Defenses
9. Adequacy or superego
10. Integration of ego.

Other variants of the TAT have also been developed for ethnic, race and language minorities. The T-TAT is suitable for African-Americans, but there were unintentional changes in facial expressions and situations that make it a new version of the TAT.

The TEMAS is intended for Spanish-American people and consists of 23 colorful images. The test contains 18 cognitive functions, 9 personality functions and 7 affective functions as a theme. Through this test you can also measure various objective indexes such as reaction time. The test does have inconsistent reliability and validity.

Expression techniques

In these tests, the participants are asked to make a drawing. At the DAP you are asked to draw a person. The interpretation is entirely intuitive by the examiner. Thereby, this test is poorly supported empirically. The House-Tree-Person test (HTP) asks the participant to draw a house, tree and person. When interpreting the drawings, the house must represent home life, the tree represents the experience of the environment and the person reflects the interpersonal relationships. However, it is an invalid measuring instrument. All in all, most clinicians no longer use the projective techniques as a stand-alone test, but as a supplement to the clinical interview.

Topic 8B Self-report and behavioral assessment of psychopathology

Previously the protective personality tests were discussed. Structural tests also exist. These tests have specific rules about taking, scoring, interpreting and describing the test and its results. These tests are also called objective, but you can only really speak of that after extensive research. There are three approaches for developing structured personality tests: theory-bounded, factor-analytic and criterion-key. A combination of these methods is often used.

Theory-guided inventories

These types of tests are developed around an existing theory.

Personality Research Form (PRF)

The PRF is based on Murray's theory on manifest need, the needs that a person wants to fulfil. Examples include autonomy, dominance, impulsivity and change. The PRF reflects 20 of this type of needs in 20 personality scales. Each scale has about 20 true-false items. There are multiple versions available with more or fewer items. The striking thing is that the different scales have little overlap. Nevertheless, the reliability and validity of this test is high.

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

The STAI is a self-report for measuring anxiety. The purpose of the test is to distinguish between a temporary state of anxiety (state-anxiety) and a long-term, stable state of anxiety (trait-anxiety). The state-scale contains 20 items about how the participant feels now, at the moment. The characteristic scale contains 20 items about how the participant generally feels. The test-retest reliability is logically low for the state scale and high for the trait scale. Furthermore, other reliability, such as internal consistency, is also high. In addition, the content, convergent, discriminant and construct validity is also high. Therefore the STAI is a widely used tool in the clinical and research sector.

Factor-analytically derived inventories

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

The EPQ was developed to measure the large dimensions of normal and abnormal personality dimensions. From the analysis three dimensions followed: Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), and Neuroticism (N). In addition, a Lie scale (L) was added for validity. A high score on the psychotic scale indicates aggressive and hostile characteristics, impulsiveness, a preference for unusual things and empathic limitations. Antisocial and schizoid patients often have a high score on this scale. A high score on the extraversion scale indicates loud, gregarious, outgoing, fun-loving core traits. A low score points to more introverted characteristics. The scale of neuroticism stands for the emotional dimensions ranging from nervous, poorly adjusted and over-emotional (high score) to stable and self-assured (low score).

There is also a Junior EPQ available for children aged 7 to 15 years. The reliability and validity of the EPQ are high. The EPQ is a very good tool for self-reporting.

Comrey Personality Scales

The CPS is a short self-report and is especially useful for students and other adults. The reliability is high. There is more disagreement about the validity. For example, cross-cultural validity is excellent and it is also an acceptable predictor for clinical purposes. But it lacks correlation with the biographical data.

The test consists of 8 scales with 20 items and 20 items for validity (first 2 scales):

1. Validity check: test for contradictory answers.
2. Response bias: test for the tendency to look good.
3. Trust vs. defensiveness: high score indicates an honest and trustworthy person.
4. Order vs. lack of compulsion: careful, orderly and organized.
5. Social conformity vs. rebelliousness: keeping rules, accepting society.
6. Activity vs. lack of energy: a lot of energy to work and perform hard.
7. Extraversion vs. introversion: easy going, looking for new friends.
8. Emotional stability vs. neuroticism: optimistic, confident and relaxed.
9. Mental toughness vs. sensitivity: are tough and show little emotions.
10. Empathy vs. egocentrism: helpful, generous and sympathetic.

Criterion-keyed inventories

With the criterion-keyed approach, test items are used only when they can distinguish a criterion group from a control group.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2)

The MMPI is a self-report that is useful in psychiatric research and normal personality research. In the first version, the control norm group was not well representative. In addition, the language use of some items was not objective and too directive. As last, the MMPI was not comprehensive enough.

That is why the MMPI-2 improved in many areas. The test consists of 567 true-false items that contain pathological themes. The test is standardized on standard groups of different mental patients. The MMPI-2 is scored on 4 validity scales, 10 standard clinical scales and many additional scales.

The first validity scale is the Cannot Say score. The score is the number of items that the participant has not checked, or double-checked. The second validity scale is the L scale. These are items that indicate an attitude that is almost never seen in our culture. They are items that everyone would fill in the same way (I never get angry, I love everyone). High scores on the F scale mean seriously unadapted behavior. It seems to show psychopathology, but even patients rarely score high. The K scale is used to discover subtle forms of defensibility. Combinations of F and K scale can be used to discover pretended diseases or fake profiles.

The MMPI-2 is always scored on its ten clinical scales, with possible interpretations.

1. Hs. Hypochondriasis, bias about physical conditions.
2. D. Depression, sad feelings and hopelessness.
3. Hy. Hysteria, immaturity, use of repression or denial
4. Pd. Psychopathic deviate, authority conflicts and impulsivity.
5. Mf. Masculity-feminity, male / female interests.
6. Pa. Paranoia, suspicion and confidence.
7. Pt. Psychasthenia, fear and obsessive thoughts.
8. Sc. Schizophrenia, Alienation, unusual thoughts.
9. Ma. Hypomania, a lot of energy and possibly nervous tensions (agitation).
10. Si. Social introversion, shyness and introversion

The MMPI-2 can be interpreted and scaled per scale by means of T-scores. In addition, there is a configurational method whereby code types are made of the scales. Two or more scales are above a certain criterion ('elevation') and two or more scales differ significantly from the others ('definition'). These scoring methods can also be done via computer programs.

The MMPI-2 has a nice reliability. Internal consistency coefficients are above .70 and test-retest tests above .50 and .90. A disadvantage, however, is that the inter-correlations of the scales are very high. The validity of the MMPI-2 is also good. The MMPI-2 will therefore remain a leading test instrument for many years.

There is also a computerized way of interpreting and the Minnesota Report is the best. This forms a 16-page long report on the validity of the profile, symptom patterns, interpersonal relationships, diagnostic considerations and considerations for treatment. It also contains multiple tables and figures to illustrate these results. It is basically a good program, but one has to take into account that it is made by people and that there can be errors. There can therefore be erroneous interpretations.

Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory III (MCMI-III)

Like the MMPI-2, the MCMI-III is useful for psychiatric research, but the MCMI-III is shorter (175 items) and can also be used in combination with the DSM-IV. The test consists of 5 groups of scales:

• Clinical personality patterns: 1. Schizoid, 2a. Avoidant, 2b. Depressive, 3. Dependent, 4. Histrionic, 5. Narcissistic, 6a. Antisocial, 6b. Aggressive / sadistic, 7. Compulsive, 8a. Passive-aggressive / negativistic, 8b. Self-defeating.
• Severe personality pathology: S. Schizotypal, C. Borderline, P. Paranoid.
• Clinical syndromes: A. Anxiety, H. Somatoform, N. Bipolar: manic, D. Dysthymia, B. Alcohol dependent, R. Post-traumatic stress disorder.
• Serious syndromes: SS. Thought disorder, CC. Major depression, PP. Delusional disorder.
• Validity indexes: X. Disclosure, Y. Desirability, Z. Debasement.

The development of the scales was done on existing patient groups, so that the scales could distinguish different patients. The intercorrelations were, however, somewhat too high. It was also controversial that he only used patients as a standard group.

Personality Inventory for Children (PIC-2)

The PIC-2 is designed for children from 5 to 19 years old. The test consists of a part that is completed by the child (PIY) and a part that is filled in by the teacher (SBS). The PIC-2 has three validity scales: inconsistency, dissimulation (fake behavior) and resilience. In addition, the test has 9 adjustment scales with 2 or 3 subscales each:

• Cognitive impairment: inadequate abilities, poor achievement, developmental delay.
• Impulsivity and distractibility: disruptive behavior and fearlessness.
• Delinquency: antisocial behavior, no control, disobedient.
• Family dysfunction: quarrel with family members, unacceptable behavior towards parents.
• Reality distortion: developmental deviation, hallucinations and delusions.
• Somatic concern: psychosomatic bias, muscle tension and anxiety.
• Psychological discomfort: fear and worry, depression, insomnia.
• Social withdrawal: social introversion, isolation.
• Social skills deficits: few friends, quarrel with peers.

The PIC-2 is scored via T-scores. The reliability is good with test-retest of .82 or higher and internal consistency of .81 or higher. The validity scores are also high. The PIC-2 is therefore a good instrument that can be used well for behavioral emotional research in children.

Behavioral assessment / research

Behavioral research concentrates on behavior itself and not on underlying characteristics, causes or dimensions of personality. It must be fast, direct and easy and correspond with the treatment. Various instruments are used, such as self-reporting, assessment of parents or (semi) structured interviews. In addition, a new form has become popular in recent years: ecological short-term research. Behavioral research can be part of behavioral therapy, where the goal is to change the duration, frequency or intensity of a certain behavior. The way of behavioral research is therefore often dependent on the goals and procedures of the therapy.

Behavioral therapy

Behavioral therapy can be divided into four categories: exposure methods, cognitive behavioral therapy, self-control procedures and social skills training.

Exposure

This method can be used to treat phobias. Here the patient is systematically exposed to the feared object or situation. This is done through desensitization. The patient learns to remain calm with the object, which happens in small steps and after learning relaxation techniques. Another way is flooding or implosion, where the patient is immediately exposed to the feared object.

The therapist first needs a behavioral assessment to treat a phobia. An example of this is the Behavorial Avoidance Test (BAT), in which the therapist measures how long the patient can tolerate the anxiety stimulus. Scores on this test are strongly related to self-reporting of catastrophic thoughts. That means that there is a cognitive component that plays a part. However, the situational context must always be taken into account.

In a fear survey schedule, participants must indicate the presence and intensity of their fears in relation to different stimuli. However, the validity is not good, so these types of instruments must be used with caution.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

The goal of cognitive behavioral therapies is to change the belief structure of the client. One of these types of therapies is Ellis' rational emotive therapy (RET). Distorted behavior is caused by irrational beliefs, which must be changed by logical arguments and incentives. Second is Meichenbaums self-instruction training. In doing so, the patient is taught to learn coping skills for stressful situations. The third is Beck's cognitive therapy, which is mainly focused on depression. Here the pessimistic cognitive structures of the view of the world, the self-concept and the future are re-structured.

The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a self-report questionnaire that measures many cognitive components of depression. It is a simple and quick to fill in questionnaire, because it consists of only 21 items. The reliability of the test is very good. Only the test-retest results were disappointing in healthy participants, but that is not unexpected, because feelings of depression change a lot in a short time. The validity of the BDI is also very good. The test can therefore be used well in behavioral research and for other clinical settings. The only drawback is that the BDI is too transparent, so that the answers are easy to fake.

Self-Monitoring Procedures

During self-monitoring, the patient is expected to choose his own goals and actively participate in leading, mapping and recording progress towards the final goal of the therapy. The therapist acts as a consultant. It is especially useful in the treatment of depression. Thus Lewinsohn discovered that depression is accompanied by a reduced experience of pleasant events. To counter this, he designed the Pleasant Events Schedule (PES). The first goal of this instrument is to draw up a baseline of pleasant, everyday events. The second goal is to measure progress during therapy. The more frequent the pleasant events, the better the symptoms. The PES is therefore a useful tool for self-control against depression.

Structured interviews

Structured interviews are often based on DSM-IV. This consists of five axes. Axis I includes clinical disorders. Axis II includes personality disorders. Axis III includes general medical conditions. Axis IV includes psychosocial and environmental problems. Axis V includes the 'Assessment of Function', a scale from 1-100 to identify everyday functioning. Problems with the DSM-IV are that taking a diagnosis takes a long time, a fixed method is lacking, and the reliability is changeable.

Semi-structured and structured interviews have been developed for this. The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizoprenia (SADS) is a semi-structured diagnostic interview for Axis I disorders. It consists of standard questions and additional questions that can be used to get something clearer. The reliability and validity of the SADS are good.

In addition, the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) for the DSM-IV is also available. This is also a semi-structured interview that also contains questions for Axis II of the DSM-IV.

Assessment by systematic direct observation

Observation methods are mainly used in children. The goal is to measure specific behaviors. These have been determined in advance. The observations are done under objective standardized procedures. That is why the time and place are well specified. Finally, the scoring is standardized and is therefore no different for other observers.

One of the ways is simply to count the frequency of the behavior. Another way is to record the duration of the behaviors. A goal of intervention can be to reduce both the frequency and the duration of behaviors. This is also available for specified schedules that save time and effort. An example is the Behavior Observation of Students in Schools (BOSS).

It is important to remember that problems may arise in direct observation. Observer drift is the problem that the observer becomes less vigilant after a while and therefore fails to notice behaviors. Another problem is coding complexity. This happens when too many behaviors have to be observed, or when the behaviors are poorly defined. You also have to take into account the moment you observe. Problems may or may not be present at different times of the day. So you cannot always start from a single observation.

Analogue behavioral assessment

In direct observation, the child is examined in his natural setting, such as a classroom. With analogue behavioral assessment, the children are observed in a standardized environment, but in a way that the child feels at ease. The child performs relevant tasks for the observed behaviors. For example, a child has to do homework in a room that is furnished as a classroom, while the observer observes the child through a mirror window. Analogue behavioral assessment can also be used for parent-child interactions. For adults, the Rapid Couples Interaction Scoring System (RCISS) is used in marriage therapy or other therapies.

Ecological momentary assessment

Patients get a device with them and they have to fill in a very short list at random moments of the day. The answers are immediately forwarded to a central computer. It is a more accurate and reliable way to examine the patient's experience. It can provide insights that are much more difficult to obtain with normal research.

How does the assessment of normality and human strengths work? - Chapter 9

Topic 9A: Assessment within the normal spectrum

When someone wants to examine the personality of a normal person, normal personality tests are more appropriate than tests designed for psychopathology. These tests focus on normality and the strengths of people. They also measure other things such as the locus of control, responsibility, intuition, or attachment style.

Broad band tests of normal personality

A broad band test is a test that measures the full functioning of a person. However, it is difficult to know how personality can best be determined in a single concept.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The MBTI is a self-report selection list based on Carl Jung's personality theories. The test is scored on four polarities: Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-iNtuiton, Thinking-Feeling, Judging-Perceiving. The personality consists of 4 of the extremes, so 2 ^ 4 = 16 different personalities are possible. One extreme is not better than the other, but they can always be considered opposites of each other.

An extrovert (E) directs his energy outside to people or conversations, whereas an introvert (I) directs his energy into his own world. Someone is 'Sensing' (S) when he trusts his immediate senses, while someone who relies on relationships and opportunities beyond his awareness is using his intuition (N). Basing conclusions on thinking (T), someone who thinks logically and objectively, against Feeling (F), trusting in his personal values ​​and social harmony. Judging (J) includes decisive and conclusive judgments, while Perceiving (P) includes non-binding, flexible and spontaneous judgments. On the basis of the letters someone can, for example, have personality ENFP. In this way, certain professional behaviors can also be attributed to a personality.

The 16 different personalities do not occur to the same extent in the population. Some are more common in certain professions. The test can be used well to estimate whether one is suitable for a specific profession.

The MBTI has good internal reliability, given the split half reliability of .80. The test-retest reliability is somewhat lower if the interval between the tests (a number of weeks versus a number of years) is higher. In the long term, 41% of all 4 letters remained the same and for 38% 3 out of 4 letters remained the same.

The validity for the intuition function is good given the positive correlation with emotional intelligence. The polarities have been compared with the NEO-PI-R that measures personality on the basis of the big five theory. The correlations with this instrument indicated that the validity of the MBTI was confirmed. The disadvantage of the MBTI is that it is a very expensive test.

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

The CPI is a true-false questionnaire and has a version with 434 questions and one with 260 questions. The questions reflect 20 personality scales and 7 work-related scales on 3 broad dimensions. Three of the 20 personality scales (Good Impression, Communality, Well-being) also give a good impression of the behavior of the person during tests.

The reliability of the CPI is acceptable, with coefficients averaging .76 and test-retest coefficients of .68. The three dimensions of the CPI that follow from the factor analysis are:

1. Orientation towards people or towards someone’s inner life. Similar to the extraversion-introversion polarity.
2. Rule-favoring or rule-questioning. Reflects a conventional-unconventional dimension also found in many studies
3. A 7 point scale called Level of Satisfaction. It is a moderator (positive / negative expression) between the four different lifestyles that follow from the first two vectors:

• Performers (extrovert & traditional); good as managers or leaders.
• Supporters (introvert & traditional); good in supporting positions.
• Innovators (extrovert & innovative); adept for creative changes.
• Visualizers (introvert & innovative); only working in art or literature.

The CPI is a good predictor for psychological and physical health, school performance, teacher and police staff effectiveness, and leadership success. In addition, the test can also identify delinquent and criminal adolescents.

NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R)

The NEO PI-R is based on the five-factor model of personality. The items also reflect the five domains: emotional stability, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness. These five domains each have six facet scales that reflect the characteristics of the domain. In this way the NEO PI-R consists of 30 facets.

The test is good to use for research and for measuring psychopathology. Certain differences on the scales can indicate a disorder. For example, persons with attention disorders often score high on neuroticism and lower on conscientiousness.

The NEO PI-R can also be done on various internet sites. The concept of collaboration describes the conducting of tests via the internet, with test specialists. The geographical location of the test taker and the participant is then no longer of importance. This is possible with this test. The tests on the internet are parallel tests of the original test, but still give a good estimate of the personality. The NEO PI-3 has been developed for children and adolescents. This contains questions that are easier to understand for children.

Stability and change in personality

A question that arises in this subject is whether personality remains stable throughout life or whether it shows certain qualitative changes. Longitudinal studies are often used for this. A problem here is selective attrition. Less healthy participants are faster than healthy, which may lead to an overly optimistic picture of reality. In addition, this research is difficult and expensive.

Another way is cross-sectional research, in which different age groups are compared. This type of research is sensitive to cohort effects. That is the assumption that differences between age groups are the result of differences in nature, development or historical experiences of that time, and are therefore not the result of aging. For example, people who grew up during the Great Depression might show a higher level of neuroticism than people who did not.

Therefore, these two types of research are combined: cross-sequential research. In addition, qualitative case studies must also be examined. For example, someone who used to have an insecure attachment may later develop a healthy personality. This is then, as it were, against the expectations of the theories.

Several researchers try to identify normative changes. These are general developmental patterns that occur in most people. However, there are many contradictory studies. Therefore, the different studies can best be investigated with a meta-analysis. Results can be combined to a common metric, called effect size: The difference in means divided by the pooled group standard deviation. This allows a general measure to be used for studies with different measuring scales.

In this way it was found that the biggest changes mainly take place in the young adulthood, when social role expectations become increasingly important. In another study it was found that the domains agreeableness and conscientiousness in puberty are at the lowest point of the development. In addition, extraversion around the 10^th year of life is the highest and after falling until the 15^th year remains approximately the same over the lifetime. Women score higher on neuroticism than men. Lastly, women at all ages score higher on agreeableness, conscientiousness and extraversion than men.

Assessment of moral judgments

According to Kohlberg there are three levels of moral development: pre-conventional> conventional> post-conventional. Each level has two sublevels. The level of moral reasoning was determined with the help of the Moral Judgment Scale. This consists of a number of moral dilemmas in which the reasoning of the answer is scored.

After much criticism of the reliability and validity of the MJS, Kohlberg and his colleagues developed a new scoring system. This has been validated with a longitudinal study. The Moral Judgment Scale proved to be reliable, internally consistent and valid, because moral development was in line with theory.

The Defining Issues Test (DIT) largely corresponds to the Moral Judgment Scale, but has a simpler and more objective scoring system. Answers to similar moral dilemmas are scored. After that, certain factors that can play a role in the dilemma are given. The participants must indicate how important they consider them. In general it is a good alternative to the Moral Judgment Scale, but marginal comments are as follows: First, some dilemmas are either dated or well known. Secondly, the DIT is biased towards conservatively religious individuals. Because of their beliefs they almost always reason at a conventional level (sub-level 3 or 4). Lastly, a relationship has never been demonstrated between moral development level on the DIT and moral behavior. This shows that the DIT is not a good tool for predicting behavior, but for evaluating moral development.

Assessment of spiritual and religious concepts

Subjects such as spirituality and religion are not studied much in psychology, but are still important to continue to research, given the importance that most people have for religion. Spirituality differs from religion in that it does not have to be experienced with certain institutions, is more personal and is less mediated by a group. Reasons for doing an assessment of spirituality or religion are: understanding the client's worldview, receiving different insights for a problem, investigating whether the spiritual-religious insights the person has can be used with coping, examining which spiritual-religious interventions are useful for therapy, and to recognize spiritual doubts that can be included in the therapy.

One of the first measuring scales was the Allport-Ross Religious Orientation Scale. This investigated the intrinsic and extrinsic expression of religion. Intrinsic expression means that you really live your religion (e.g., to find meaning), extrinsic expression means that you use your religion (e.g., to seek security or social status). This scale was later revised to the Religious Orientation Scale, consisting of 11 extrinsic items and 9 intrinsic items on a 9-point scale.

The Religious Orientation scale also had problems; it was unclear what exactly the intrinsic and extrinsic scales measured and what the relationship between the two scales was. That is why the Religion as Quest scale was developed , where complexity, doubt and tentativeness were seen as ways to be religious. This instrument proved to be more reliable, but there are still doubts about what the scale actually measures. The test is intended to measure the following: willingness to be confronted with existential questions without reducing their complexity, self-criticism and perception of religious doubts such as positivity, and openness to change. There was much criticism of this, that it is rather assessing agnosticism, anti-orthodoxy, religious doubts, or religious conflict. In addition, the test is too concise and factorially too simple.

The Spiritual Well Being Scale measures the spiritual well-being on two dimensions. The Religious Welfare Scale measures well-being in relation to God / higher power and the Existential Welfare Scale measures well-being in relation to life's utility and satisfaction. The scores on the SWB should match the independent measurements of well-being. This has been researched a lot and in general positive results are achieved here. The idea is that the well-being consists of the integral experience of the person who functions as God intended and has a right-minded relationship with him, with others and with himself. Criticism on this scale is that it has too low a ceiling for religious people. It cannot be used to distinguish between people with high levels of spiritual well-being.

The Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale measures spiritual and religious variables on two dimensions: spiritual supernaturality and religious feelings. The spiritual dimension consists of three facets: the ability to pray, belief in a larger reality and connectedness with a larger humanity. The religious dimension has two facets: religious involvement and religious crisis. Validity studies support the reliability and validity of the ASPIRES Scale. In addition, it predicts certain social behaviors and personality traits.

The Faith Maturity Scale (FMS) firstly developed a baseline of data about the vitality of faith in protestant municipalities. In addition, to identify demographic, personal and municipal variables that contribute to the development of faith. Finally, to evaluate the impact of religious education. The FMS consists of 38 items spread over 8 themes, such as trust, experiences and spiritual growth. The items used in the test are mainly used for Protestant religions. Nevertheless, validity and reliability are high. Firstly, different groups (pastors, teachers, young people) were indeed expected to have different scores. Secondly, the mutual correlation between the pastors was also high. Third, the FMS also proved useful, given the high correlations with pro social behaviors.

How does neuropsychological assessment and screening work? - Chapter 10

Topic 10A Neurobiological Concepts and Behavior Assessment

The Human Brain

The brain is the best protected organ in the body. It is first protected by the skull. Then through meninges, three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. In the brain, the ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. This is a liquid that is constantly produced and refreshed and serves as protection for the brain. The brain literally floats up here and is protected against blows and dehydration. The ventricles are four hollow, connected chambers in the middle of the brain. It may be that the aqueduct leaving the 3^rd or 4^th ventricle becomes too small. This can be a problem from birth or develop throughout adulthood. This condition is known as hydrocephalus or water head. The pressure then becomes too large in the brain. In children it can cause the ventricles to grow and the brain is eventually pressed against the skull. Untreated, this can lead to mental retardation or premature death. Fortunately, it is easy to treat the excess liquid through a shunt to drain.

When the brain is surrounded by the liquid, it weighs about 1.5 kilos. The brain consists of 5 elements: gray matter, white matter, glial cells, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood vessels that supply the brain with oxygen and nutrients.

The brain constantly needs oxygen and glucose through blood. The blood is transported through a circular network of arteries called the circle of Willis. This network ensures that the brain is constantly supplied with blood. When one gets older it can happen that one of the arteries becomes silted up by fatty plaques. Then oxygen is missing and an infarct occurs, which is a kind of stroke or cerebrovascular accident. One can also develop later multi-infarct dementia , which is the result of an accumulation of small infarcts over a number of years. It can also happen that a blood vessel breaks open and the blood immediately splashes into the brain tissue, this is called arterial rupture.

Structures and systems of the brain

We begin with the overview of the brain at the cerebrum, consisting of a left and right hemisphere. These are connected by the corpus callosum, a large bundle of neurons that transmit information from both hemispheres. This has been discovered by researchers who have investigated 'split-brain patients' whose corpus callosum has been cut. They found that the hemisphere on the one side was not aware of the visual information in the other hemisphere.

These patients have been extensively studied for hemispheric specialization studies. A lot has also become clear from research on people who have no corpus callosum since birth, this is called ACC: agenesis of the corpus callosum. Here, too, you see that verbal expression is often emotionless and / or inappropriate. The cerebrum develops from an evolutionary perspective as the last part of the brain. This is the place where thoughts, imagination, assessment and decision-making take place.

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain and is the source of the highest levels of sense, motor and cognitive processes. It consists of bulges, called gyri (singular gyrus), and of grooves called sulci (sulcus). This has the aim of surface enlargement and thus more information transfer. The cortex consists of four lobes: the frontal lobe is responsible for motor control, the parietal lobe is responsible for processing sensation and other somatosensory information, the occipital lobe is responsible for visual perception, and the temporal lobe is responsible for processing auditory information. Of course, the lobes have many other functions and they also work together a lot.

Survival systems: the rhinoceros and midbrain

The rhinoceros is the lowest part of the brain, located in the top of the spinal cord. It contains vital body functions. The lowest part is the medulla responsible for essential life functions such as breathing, swallowing and blood pressure. Damage to the medulla is usually fatal to a person. When a small stroke occurs and the person survives, the following symptoms are often visible: paralysis on the opposite side, partial loss of sensation of pain and temperature, clumsiness, dizziness, partial loss of the gag reflex, paralysis on the same side and atrophy of the tongue.

Higher up are the pons and the cerebellum. Together they are responsible for coordination of muscles, body posture, and hand and eye movements.

Above the hindbrain is the midbrain, which contains nuclei for many cranial nerves. Of these 12 nerves, some are explicit sensory, some only motoric and others both. These are mainly sensory basic functions and movements that the nerves take care of.

Attention systems

Attention is a kind of searchlight that identifies what is relevant to us and ignores what is irrelevant. It is a primitive, automatic cognitive system that is essential for survival. There are different types of attention:

• Orienting attention is related to the fight / flight reflex. All attention is directly focused on imminent danger.
• Selective attention includes the identification of a single, personally relevant stimulus in a rich environment, such as hearing your name.
• Distributed attention includes the ability to switch between multiple tasks.
• Consistent attention includes holding attention for a longer time.

There are no precise neurological systems for attention in the brain. It requires a collaboration of multiple brain sites. The reticular formation is a network of neurons from the spinal cord to the thalamus, responsible for general arousal or consciousness. Selective attention seems to be happening here. Part of the reticular formation is also known as the reticulate activating system. This system has to do with drowsiness, sedation and coma.

Motor / coordination systems

Three areas are important for motor control. The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum, at the back of the brain. It coordinates muscles, posture and eye movements. The cerebellum receives sensory information from the whole body and automatically coordinates learned movements. The cerebellum also provides the vestibuloocular reflex, keeping the eyes focused on a target while the head is moving. Damage in the cerebellum can, in addition to motor disruptions, also cause dysarthria, unclear and hesitant speech.

The basal ganglia consists of several nuclei and has connections with the cortex and thalamus. The most important parts of the basal ganglia are the caudate, the putamen and the globus pallidus. The structures of the basal ganglia are connected with the subthalamus nucleus and substantia nigra. Together with the cerebellum, the corticospinal system, and motor nuclei in the brainstem the basal ganglia participates in the control of movements. The basal ganglia has indirect motor functions because it is not in direct contact with the spinal cord. Damage to the basal ganglia can lead to Parkinson's disease: Involuntary movements, slow movements and changes in posture. In addition, Parkinson's patients also have deficiencies in cognitive functioning.

The cells in the motor cortex are for a large part contralateral: the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa. The cells send voluntary motor movements. This part is located on the precentral gyrus on the frontal lobe.

Memory systems

There are different ways to distinguish memory:

• Episodic vs. semantic memory: memory for personal events and experiences versus general knowledge.
• Working memory vs. associative memory: the use of information that we only need temporarily for memories that come to mind because of certain stimuli.
• Declarative vs. procedural memory: the 'what' in the memory versus the 'how' in the memory.
• Explicit vs. implicit memory: directly and clearly accessible to difficult-to-access memories.
• Short term vs. long-term memory: reminders that are stored up to a maximum of a few minutes against memories that have been stored for hours to years.

Many brain areas work together in memory processes, but especially the hippocampus and amygdala are important for consolidating memories to long-term memory. Studies have shown that different areas are responsible for different memory systems. For example, the procedural memory is probably regulated by the cerebellum.

Limbic system

This is a centrally located brain network under the cortex and is involved in survival drives and emotions. It has strong connections with memory areas. In addition, pleasure centers are located here. Which parts of the brain belong to this system is not entirely clear because we actually know very little about this system. In any case, the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, mammilary bodies and the fornix are listed below.

Another component is the hypothalamus, which is involved in body regulation and emotional behavior. Damage to this part can cause a disrupted pituitary gland, because it has strong connections with it, so the diet can change (lots of food and drink). Damage can also cause sleep problems; excessive sleep or the inability to sleep. The hypothalamus also regulates things such as blood pressure, diet, sexual behavior and the sleep / wake rhythm.

Language functions and cerebral lateralization

Language functions are mainly found in the left hemisphere. Because many areas work together, almost every damage in the left hemisphere will bring language defects. In the left premotor area is the area of ​​Broca. People with damage here can suffer from Broca's aphasia: they can hardly understand spoken or written language. People suffering from Wernicke's aphasia, on the other hand, have difficulty with the underlying meaning of words, while they can still perceive and produce them. These patients often have damage to the left temporal lobe. However, it must always be remembered that the entire brain is active in language functions, such as speech.

Geschwind proposed a model that described in which way the areas in the left hemisphere have language functions. It shows that damage to Broca's area causes slow speech; language comprehension remains unaffected. Damage to Wernicke's area causes greatly reduced language comprehension. Damage to the angular gyrus causes serious reading problems, but not in the understanding of speech. Damage in the auditory cortex causes problems in verbal understanding, but patients can speak and read normally.

The right hemisphere is dominant for analyzing geometrical and visual spaces, understanding and expression of emotion, processing music and non-verbal sounds, production of non-verbal and spatial memories and recognition of complex forms. Damage can lead to construct dyspraxia: inability to recognize spatial relationships.

Visual system

The most important sensory areas for vision are located in the occipital lobe. Here, too, there is contralateralisation, the information comes together via the splenium located in the corpus callosum. Damage in the association areas (which are more to the front) of the occipital lobe can lead to visual agnosia: the difficulty of recognizing drawings, objects or faces. This is especially the case with damage on the right side. Patients with prosopagnosia can no longer recognize faces of people they know. The association areas ensure that meaning is given to the view. Visual agnosia occurs primarily in damage to the right side of the occipital lobe, but may also be related to damage to the temporal and parietal lobes.

Executive functions

These functions provide the ability to respond to new situations in a well-adapted way. This includes:

• Volition: capacity for intentional behavior.
• Planning: recognizing and executing steps that lead to a goal.
• Purposive actions: take action and maintain it in a neat way.
• Effective performance: constantly monitoring activities on the set goals and changing strategies when necessary.

Executive functioning activity is mainly found in the frontal areas. These are essential for programming, regulation, verification and motor execution of executive functions. Implementing a plan requires a manipulation of the environment, which must be planned by the primary motor cortex, which sits in the back of the frontal lobe. The additional motor cortex involved in motor programs is the series of complex motor operations.

Damage in the motor cortex causes fine motor problems on the contralateral side of the body. Damage in the frontal cortex can cause problems in motivation, mental changes, regulation of behavior and self-awareness.

Few test instruments are sensitive to measuring executive functions. The tests often measure what a person knows, while the reactions often change because of the damage.

Because of the irregularly shaped skull the skull, the forward underside surfaces of the frontal lobes was prone to damage when someone sustained head injury. The front of the temporal lobes is also susceptible to this.

Neuropathology in adult and aging

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) can be anything from a concussion to a serious brain injury. A concussion includes a brief loss of consciousness, followed by headaches, loss of concentration, vagueness, irritability and other emotional symptoms. A 'closed head injury' is a broader term for traumatic brain damage and often involves severe limitations. The damage can also penetrate other parts of the brain. With an open head injury, the skull is also cracked. The damage to the brain is often only on the spot or near where the skull has burst.

The most common complaints are concentration and memory problems. That is also the reason why they always occur in tests.

In addition, a brain tumor in the brain can also cause various effects. It depends on the location, size and growth rate of the tumor which effects it has. Gliomas are tumors from the glial cells that grow rapidly and meningiomas are slow-growing tumors that press on the brain that originate from the membranes. Tumors are cells that mutate and thus originate from cells that our body already has.

Chronic alcohol abuse can result in neural destruction in the dendrites, especially in the areas important for memory. This can cause amnesia that is also called the disease of Korsakoff, this is mainly due to vitamin deficiency. Affected people mainly have anterograde amnesia. It was found in a study that the brain volume of alcoholics increased after 6-7 weeks without drinking. It was not much, but it did provide hopeful conclusions for interventions.

Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus is a condition in which the cerebrospinal fluid increases. This can cause symptoms such as incontinence and dementia. This often makes it mistaken for other diseases, such as Alzheimer's, while NPH is easily remedied with a catheter that removes the abundant fluid.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by a degeneration of the brain and is the most common form of dementia. Characteristics of the brain are then a reduction of neurons, the shrinking or atrophy of the brain, reduction of acetylcholine transmitters involved in memory and an accumulation in the cerebral vasculature. Plaques and tangles arise. There are many symptoms of dementia. In addition, many normal functions such as language or motor skills are deteriorating more and more quickly. It also happens often that the personality changes.

Vascular dementia is often the result of stroke and is the second most common cause of dementia. This usually happens at once, but sometimes several small strokes can cause a multi-infarct dementia. The symptoms of a stroke are motor weakness, reduced sensation in the body and loss of consciousness. On the basis of a test called MID, a distinction can be made between Alzheimer's and this.

Parkinson's disease occurs in 2 out of 1,000 elderly people. It is primarily a motor disorder, but there are also often cognitive and emotional problems. Tremor is the most common symptom and includes vibrating and shocking movements that can not be stopped.

Behavioral assessment of neuropathology

The mental status of examinations (MSE) is a separate interview that precedes other forms of assessment. Its purpose is to provide an accurate description of the psychological functioning of the patient. The psychologist examines the important areas of personal and intellectual functioning in search of symptoms of psychopathology. It concerns: orientation, memory, thoughts, feelings and judgments.

Another way is to have behavioral scales filled in by acquaintances of the patient. The Behavioral and Psychological Assessment of Dementia (BPAD) is a measurement scale that measures dementia-related changes in behavior among the over-30s. This is done for the last four weeks and five years ago, so that a current, past and a change score can be given. The scores are scored in 7 domains divided over three clusters: psychological, behavior, and biological symptoms.

The Frontal Systems Behavior Scale (FrSBe) has been specially developed to measure symptoms of frontal brain damage. Subscales include apathy, disinhibition and executive dysfunction. This simple, short scale is a good measuring instrument for patients who have symptoms of frontal damage due to different neurodegenerative disorders.

Subject 10B Neuropsychological tests, test batteries and screening tools

Model of brain-behavior relationships

Bennett has developed a simplified model that is useful for the organization of neuropsychological tests. Each test considers one of the following categories:

1. Sensory reception
2. Attention and concentration
3. Learning and memory
4. a) Left hemisphere: language, linear thinking; b) Right hemisphere: visual space, holistic thinking
5. Executive functions
6. Motor output

Executive functions that are tested include logical analysis, concept formation, reasoning, planning, flexibility of thinking.

The order in which the categories are given is roughly the order in which incoming information is processed in the brain. It is important to remember that multiple tests are often used. One type is flexible or patient-centered testing, where an individualized test battery for the client is formed. Another type is an already formed test battery that is taken from each client.

Assessment of sensory input

The accuracy of sensory input is crucial for the competence of perception, thought, planning and action.

The Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination consists of simple tasks that test your sensory ability. Normal people can perform this without error. It is especially striking if the participant makes many mistakes on one side of the body. This may indicate brain damage to the contralateral hemisphere.

Possible loss of sensory power is also tested by the Finger Localization Test. Participants must indicate which of their fingers are being touched. Normal people do this almost perfectly, so errors can indicate damage to the sensory system.

Measures of attention and concentration

It is difficult in practice to distinguish between simple attention, concentration, mental shifts, mental tracking, vigilance and other variants of attention and concentration. The following test was the only one that succeeded here.

The Test of Everyday Attention (TEA) measures the subcomponents of attention, including sustained attention, divided attention and selective attention. This is done through 8 subtests.

The test has been validated in patients with TBI, stroke or Alzheimer's. In addition, the test is also well validated among the normal participants. The TEA can analyze subtests so that the strengths and weaknesses of the participants can be analyzed.

The Continuous Performance Test (CPT) is a family of tests that measure persistent attention. Although they are sensitive to various affected brain conditions, the CPT does not diagnose attention disorders such as ADHD.

Learning and memory tests

Learning and memory are two components that can hardly be investigated separately. Different memory tests therefore examine different types of memory, as was also indicated in chapter 10A. Memory tests can be categorized in different dimensions: short-term versus long-term, verbal versus pictorial, learning-curve versus non-learning curve.

The Wechsler Memory Scale-IV scores nine subtests on five index scores: Immediate Memory Index, Delayed Memory Index, Auditory Memory Index, Visual Memory Index, Visual Working Memory Index. The WMS-IV is well validated under a well-standardized standard group. It is important to remember that when a certain profile is associated with a certain disease, this does not apply the other way round. A patient with Alzheimer's with a distinctive profile does not mean that everyone with the same profile also has Alzheimer's.

The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) includes the free recall of 15 words in any order. The participant is scored on the number of words that he has been able to retrieve in the 5 trials. Persons with a memory problem can be properly diagnosed by the RAVLT. The fact that the test has at least 7 parallel versions is both strength and weakness: a person can be tested more often, but a person learns better each time.

The Fuld Object-Memory Evaluation is a test that is mainly done in the elderly. Participants receive 10 objects that they must feel and name. After a distraction task, a selective reminder task follows in which the objects are described. The task is to retrieve the objects from the memory. The test is mainly used in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's. After all, these patients benefit little from the selective memory. The test had a sensitivity of 93% and a specificity of 90%, so that is very high.

The Rivermead Behavorial Memory Test consists of 12 subtests that reflect everyday memory, such as finding a route, remembering names and retrieving information. The test is popular because of the ecological validity and the different types of memory that are being tested. An online version has also been developed that correlated highly with the original test. This is therefore a promising alternative for face-to-face testing.

The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-2 (WRAML) consists of 6 subtests that contribute to three index scores: Verbal Memory, Visual Memory, and Attention / Concentration. Together they lead to a General Memory Index. The WRAML also tests for delayed memory and recognition, with differences in these memory types occurring mainly in the elderly. In addition, the subtests can be used for measuring working memory. The WMS-II and the WRAML both measure memory, but the correlation between the two is not very high. It can be concluded from this that they measure different aspects of memory and are therefore not interchangeable. The correlation between WISC and WRAML is also not very high, from which it can be concluded that the WRAML measures intelligence-related aspects.

Assessment of language functions

Aphasia includes any deviation in language functions as the result of brain damage. To test aphasia, three ways are used: non-standardized clinical examination, standardized screening or an understanding diagnostic test of aphasia.

A clinical trial has the advantages that it is simple, flexible and concise. Elements that are investigated are: spontaneous speech, repetition of sentences or phrases, comprehension of spoken language, finding words, reading, writing and copying, and calculation. Then this is scored on certain measuring scales.

Standardized screenings correspond to a clinical examination, but contain objective and precise instructions, so subtle symptoms of aphasia often do not come to light. Diagnostic tests are often performed in patients who are already known to have aphasia and are especially useful for treatment planning.

Tests for spatial and manipulatory ability

The term apraxia refers to various dysfunctions in controlling or performing complex motor actions. Tests that measure spatial and manipulation capabilities are also called construct performance tests. These tests combine perceptual activity with motor reactions and always contain a spatial component. Construct capability contains multiple complex functions and therefore limitations are quickly revealed, even when there are mild forms of dysfunction of the brain. It is only the question where the restriction comes from. This can have multiple causes: spatial confusion, perceptual limitations, attention problems, motivation problems or apraxia.

With the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test (BGT), participants are asked to draw pictures. Patients are allowed to draw as slowly or quickly as they wish. Various scoring systems are available. In adults, it looks at possible brain damage, but in children the test is used to examine their mental age. The score that comes from the test is the Visual Motor Integration (VMI), and can easily be compared with IQ scores.

The Greek Cross is a drawing task in which participants have to draw a cross without having to remove their pencil from the paper. There is a scoring guide, but often the quality of the drawing is looked at. The test is sensitive to patients with brain injury. There are also block models, which participants have to recreate. This test is very sensitive to brain injury.

Assessment of executive functions

Executive functions include logical analysis, conceptualization, reasoning, planning and the flexibility of thinking. It is difficult to measure these functions, because it is difficult to properly transfer the task to the client. This problem is often solved by using clinical methods instead of formal testing. There are few tests that measure the executive functions on an acceptable level.

During the Porteus Maze Test, participants must draw a line without lifting up to come out of a series of mazes that are becoming increasingly difficult. The test is sensitive to (traumatic) brain damage. The test measures planning and insight.

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a good test for abstract thinking and the ability to switch sets. Participants receive 64 cards with 1-4 symbols in 4 colors. These have to be divided over 4 stacks in which the tactics are changed after ten good distributions. The examiner says “right” or “wrong” as the examinee lays down the cards. The test is widely used for people with recent brain trauma and to look at the recovery.

In the Tinkertoy test, participants are asked to create as extensive a structure as possible with a sort of old-fashioned K'nex. People with brain damage make only small structures and score worse than people in the control condition. With this, the researchers stated that it is a good test to investigate executive functions, but also for research into Alzheimer's.

A test battery that mainly reflects everyday situations is the Behavorial Assessment of the Dysexecutive System (BADS). It consists of 6 subtests: temporal orientation, changing rule with maps, programming action with materials, searching keys in a set, planning zoo route, completing six activities in 10 minutes. The test is scored in areas: personality / emotional, motivational, behaviour, and cognitive changes.

In addition, the ability to find an unknown place in a city is also a good test, because you need strategy and self-monitoring.

Assessment of motor output

The most widely used test is the finger-tap test. Participants must tap their index finger as much as possible in 10 seconds. Especially a big difference between the different sides (more than 10%) can indicate brain damage.

In the Purdue Pegboard Test, participants must insert pins into holes with the left hand, right hand and then with both hands. The test is good to use with a test battery, but in itself does not serve as a good screening for motor problems. A variation exists where the holes have a ridge, so the pins have to be turned to fit into the hole. This is a good tool for the assessment of (bi-)lateral brain damage.

A final way is that the client gets a sheet with figures drawn on it. It is then the intention that the client tracks the lines of the figure with a brightly colored pen. This can be done well by a 10-year-old and is therefore a good test to look at restrictions in motor regulation. It should be remembered that usable motor tests should use more refined material.

Test batteries for neuropsychological assessment

The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) consists of 269 items scored on 11 clinical scales:

• C1 Motor: coordination, speed, motor skills.
• C2 Rhythm: paying attention to, distinguishing and producing rhythmic stimuli.
• C3 Tactile: identifying tangible stimuli.
• C4 Visual: identify drawings and perform visuo-spatial operations.
• C5 Receptive speech: discrimination of phonemes and understanding of words and sentences.
• C6 Expressive speech: fluently articulate sounds, words and sentences.
• C7 Writing: use of motor skills to write
• C8 Reading
• C9 Arithmetic: simple maths, and solve mathematical structures.
• C10 Memory: memorize verbal and non-verbal stimuli under certain conditions.
• C11 Intelligence: reasoning, concept formation and complex problem solving.

Hereafter, 3 summary scales are scored: pathological, left hemisphere and right hemisphere. The first scale represents the degree of recovery, the second and third must show whether the damage is mainly in the left or right hemisphere. Despite the statistical reliability and validity, there is scepticism about the heterogeneity of clinical scales and the speech scales that are not tested for aphasia.

The Neuropsychological Assessment Battery (NAB) consists of 24 tests that reflect 5 modules: attention, language, memory, spatial and executive functions. The test battery has good ecological validity, which means that the test represents the practical activities in the real world. The reliability differs per module as well as the psychometric validity.

Baseline testing with brief neuropsychological test batteries

Setting up a baseline is important because you can compare scores with it. In this way, it can be checked when someone deviates significantly. Each individual has a different level and other strengths and weaknesses. At least two areas of assessment baseline testing is often used in practice. The first application is the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (ANAM) Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) that is used in the military. The subtests measure reaction time, learning, memory, arithmetic processing, spatial processes, executive functions, and symptoms. The test has been developed to see if there is a traumatic brain injury. The subtests are very sensitive to the impact of injury, degenerative disease, exposure to poison, effects of medication and rehabilitation efforts. The ANAM4 TBI can be used to look at what the soldier is up to in the neurocognitive field compared to previous tests and the norm group. The norm group is carefully subdivided by age and gender and formed by very large samples. Little is known about sensitivity and specificity. The rest of psychometric characteristics are in order.

We also have another computerized test, the ImPACT. This test has been developed to investigate whether athletes can continue playing after a concussion. The test is only usable when an individual baseline is set. The test has good sensitivity (82%) and good specificity (89%). There is criticism of this test, for example there is a lot of false positives. Empirical research supports the idea that this test is suitable for making the decision whether or not an athlete can play. This requires more tests and not just these.

Screening for alcohol abuse disorders

A difference must be made between alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. A person is diagnosed with alcohol abuse if he meets one of the four criteria:

• Drinking interferes with everyday functions.
• Drinking leads to unsafe behavior.
• Drinking causes legal violations.
• Drinking leads to conflicts with a parent or caretaker.

Someone is alcohol dependent if he meets three of the following 7 criteria:

• Increased tolerance for alcohol for the same effect.
• Withdrawal symptoms such as shaking.
• Drink more and longer for longer periods than planned.
• Desire to stop but without success.
• Spending a lot of time drinking alcohol.
• Specifying important activities to drink.
• Continue to drink despite serious health problems.

The CAGE questionnaire is a short screening instrument with questions about whether the person wants to stop drinking, he is annoyed by criticism about his use, he feels guilty about his use and if he has had an eye-opener. There are still doubts about the use and validity of the CAGE. Some researchers say that it works better for men than for women, so there is another screening for women, the TWEAK. This also accurately shows alcohol abuse in women.

In addition, there is also the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory. The SASSI-3 consists of 26 clear questions about substance abuse and 67 subtle questions about symptoms. The validity of the SASSI-3 is very good and it is therefore often used.

Lastly, there is the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). This is an objective index for cognitive functioning and is mainly used in patients with Alzheimer's disease. It consists of 30 questions related to time orientation, direct memory, attention, calculation, language production, language comprehension and design copy. A cut-off score is used that determines whether or not a patient could have Alzheimer's disease. This is exactly 80 to 90% of the cases. The test is recommended as a rapid screening test for the elderly.

How does neuropsychological assessment and screening work? - Chapter 10

Topic 10A Neurobiological Concepts and Behavior Assessment

The Human Brain

The brain is the best protected organ in the body. It is first protected by the skull. Then through meninges, three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. In the brain, the ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. This is a liquid that is constantly produced and refreshed and serves as protection for the brain. The brain literally floats up here and is protected against blows and dehydration. The ventricles are four hollow, connected chambers in the middle of the brain. It may be that the aqueduct leaving the 3^rd or 4^th ventricle becomes too small. This can be a problem from birth or develop throughout adulthood. This condition is known as hydrocephalus or water head. The pressure then becomes too large in the brain. In children it can cause the ventricles to grow and the brain is eventually pressed against the skull. Untreated, this can lead to mental retardation or premature death. Fortunately, it is easy to treat the excess liquid through a shunt to drain.

When the brain is surrounded by the liquid, it weighs about 1.5 kilos. The brain consists of 5 elements: gray matter, white matter, glial cells, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood vessels that supply the brain with oxygen and nutrients.

The brain constantly needs oxygen and glucose through blood. The blood is transported through a circular network of arteries called the circle of Willis. This network ensures that the brain is constantly supplied with blood. When one gets older it can happen that one of the arteries becomes silted up by fatty plaques. Then oxygen is missing and an infarct occurs, which is a kind of stroke or cerebrovascular accident. One can also develop later multi-infarct dementia , which is the result of an accumulation of small infarcts over a number of years. It can also happen that a blood vessel breaks open and the blood immediately splashes into the brain tissue, this is called arterial rupture.

Structures and systems of the brain

We begin with the overview of the brain at the cerebrum, consisting of a left and right hemisphere. These are connected by the corpus callosum, a large bundle of neurons that transmit information from both hemispheres. This has been discovered by researchers who have investigated 'split-brain patients' whose corpus callosum has been cut. They found that the hemisphere on the one side was not aware of the visual information in the other hemisphere.

These patients have been extensively studied for hemispheric specialization studies. A lot has also become clear from research on people who have no corpus callosum since birth, this is called ACC: agenesis of the corpus callosum. Here, too, you see that verbal expression is often emotionless and / or inappropriate. The cerebrum develops from an evolutionary perspective as the last part of the brain. This is the place where thoughts, imagination, assessment and decision-making take place.

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain and is the source of the highest levels of sense, motor and cognitive processes. It consists of bulges, called gyri (singular gyrus), and of grooves called sulci (sulcus). This has the aim of surface enlargement and thus more information transfer. The cortex consists of four lobes: the frontal lobe is responsible for motor control, the parietal lobe is responsible for processing sensation and other somatosensory information, the occipital lobe is responsible for visual perception, and the temporal lobe is responsible for processing auditory information. Of course, the lobes have many other functions and they also work together a lot.

Survival systems: the rhinoceros and midbrain

The rhinoceros is the lowest part of the brain, located in the top of the spinal cord. It contains vital body functions. The lowest part is the medulla responsible for essential life functions such as breathing, swallowing and blood pressure. Damage to the medulla is usually fatal to a person. When a small stroke occurs and the person survives, the following symptoms are often visible: paralysis on the opposite side, partial loss of sensation of pain and temperature, clumsiness, dizziness, partial loss of the gag reflex, paralysis on the same side and atrophy of the tongue.

Higher up are the pons and the cerebellum. Together they are responsible for coordination of muscles, body posture, and hand and eye movements.

Above the hindbrain is the midbrain, which contains nuclei for many cranial nerves. Of these 12 nerves, some are explicit sensory, some only motoric and others both. These are mainly sensory basic functions and movements that the nerves take care of.

Attention systems

Attention is a kind of searchlight that identifies what is relevant to us and ignores what is irrelevant. It is a primitive, automatic cognitive system that is essential for survival. There are different types of attention:

• Orienting attention is related to the fight / flight reflex. All attention is directly focused on imminent danger.
• Selective attention includes the identification of a single, personally relevant stimulus in a rich environment, such as hearing your name.
• Distributed attention includes the ability to switch between multiple tasks.
• Consistent attention includes holding attention for a longer time.

There are no precise neurological systems for attention in the brain. It requires a collaboration of multiple brain sites. The reticular formation is a network of neurons from the spinal cord to the thalamus, responsible for general arousal or consciousness. Selective attention seems to be happening here. Part of the reticular formation is also known as the reticulate activating system. This system has to do with drowsiness, sedation and coma.

Motor / coordination systems

Three areas are important for motor control. The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum, at the back of the brain. It coordinates muscles, posture and eye movements. The cerebellum receives sensory information from the whole body and automatically coordinates learned movements. The cerebellum also provides the vestibuloocular reflex, keeping the eyes focused on a target while the head is moving. Damage in the cerebellum can, in addition to motor disruptions, also cause dysarthria, unclear and hesitant speech.

The basal ganglia consists of several nuclei and has connections with the cortex and thalamus. The most important parts of the basal ganglia are the caudate, the putamen and the globus pallidus. The structures of the basal ganglia are connected with the subthalamus nucleus and substantia nigra. Together with the cerebellum, the corticospinal system, and motor nuclei in the brainstem the basal ganglia participates in the control of movements. The basal ganglia has indirect motor functions because it is not in direct contact with the spinal cord. Damage to the basal ganglia can lead to Parkinson's disease: Involuntary movements, slow movements and changes in posture. In addition, Parkinson's patients also have deficiencies in cognitive functioning.

The cells in the motor cortex are for a large part contralateral: the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa. The cells send voluntary motor movements. This part is located on the precentral gyrus on the frontal lobe.

Memory systems

There are different ways to distinguish memory:

• Episodic vs. semantic memory: memory for personal events and experiences versus general knowledge.
• Working memory vs. associative memory: the use of information that we only need temporarily for memories that come to mind because of certain stimuli.
• Declarative vs. procedural memory: the 'what' in the memory versus the 'how' in the memory.
• Explicit vs. implicit memory: directly and clearly accessible to difficult-to-access memories.
• Short term vs. long-term memory: reminders that are stored up to a maximum of a few minutes against memories that have been stored for hours to years.

Many brain areas work together in memory processes, but especially the hippocampus and amygdala are important for consolidating memories to long-term memory. Studies have shown that different areas are responsible for different memory systems. For example, the procedural memory is probably regulated by the cerebellum.

Limbic system

This is a centrally located brain network under the cortex and is involved in survival drives and emotions. It has strong connections with memory areas. In addition, pleasure centers are located here. Which parts of the brain belong to this system is not entirely clear because we actually know very little about this system. In any case, the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, mammilary bodies and the fornix are listed below.

Another component is the hypothalamus, which is involved in body regulation and emotional behavior. Damage to this part can cause a disrupted pituitary gland, because it has strong connections with it, so the diet can change (lots of food and drink). Damage can also cause sleep problems; excessive sleep or the inability to sleep. The hypothalamus also regulates things such as blood pressure, diet, sexual behavior and the sleep / wake rhythm.

Language functions and cerebral lateralization

Language functions are mainly found in the left hemisphere. Because many areas work together, almost every damage in the left hemisphere will bring language defects. In the left premotor area is the area of ​​Broca. People with damage here can suffer from Broca's aphasia: they can hardly understand spoken or written language. People suffering from Wernicke's aphasia, on the other hand, have difficulty with the underlying meaning of words, while they can still perceive and produce them. These patients often have damage to the left temporal lobe. However, it must always be remembered that the entire brain is active in language functions, such as speech.

Geschwind proposed a model that described in which way the areas in the left hemisphere have language functions. It shows that damage to Broca's area causes slow speech; language comprehension remains unaffected. Damage to Wernicke's area causes greatly reduced language comprehension. Damage to the angular gyrus causes serious reading problems, but not in the understanding of speech. Damage in the auditory cortex causes problems in verbal understanding, but patients can speak and read normally.

The right hemisphere is dominant for analyzing geometrical and visual spaces, understanding and expression of emotion, processing music and non-verbal sounds, production of non-verbal and spatial memories and recognition of complex forms. Damage can lead to construct dyspraxia: inability to recognize spatial relationships.

Visual system

The most important sensory areas for vision are located in the occipital lobe. Here, too, there is contralateralisation, the information comes together via the splenium located in the corpus callosum. Damage in the association areas (which are more to the front) of the occipital lobe can lead to visual agnosia: the difficulty of recognizing drawings, objects or faces. This is especially the case with damage on the right side. Patients with prosopagnosia can no longer recognize faces of people they know. The association areas ensure that meaning is given to the view. Visual agnosia occurs primarily in damage to the right side of the occipital lobe, but may also be related to damage to the temporal and parietal lobes.

Executive functions

These functions provide the ability to respond to new situations in a well-adapted way. This includes:

• Volition: capacity for intentional behavior.
• Planning: recognizing and executing steps that lead to a goal.
• Purposive actions: take action and maintain it in a neat way.
• Effective performance: constantly monitoring activities on the set goals and changing strategies when necessary.

Executive functioning activity is mainly found in the frontal areas. These are essential for programming, regulation, verification and motor execution of executive functions. Implementing a plan requires a manipulation of the environment, which must be planned by the primary motor cortex, which sits in the back of the frontal lobe. The additional motor cortex involved in motor programs is the series of complex motor operations.

Damage in the motor cortex causes fine motor problems on the contralateral side of the body. Damage in the frontal cortex can cause problems in motivation, mental changes, regulation of behavior and self-awareness.

Few test instruments are sensitive to measuring executive functions. The tests often measure what a person knows, while the reactions often change because of the damage.

Because of the irregularly shaped skull the skull, the forward underside surfaces of the frontal lobes was prone to damage when someone sustained head injury. The front of the temporal lobes is also susceptible to this.

Neuropathology in adult and aging

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) can be anything from a concussion to a serious brain injury. A concussion includes a brief loss of consciousness, followed by headaches, loss of concentration, vagueness, irritability and other emotional symptoms. A 'closed head injury' is a broader term for traumatic brain damage and often involves severe limitations. The damage can also penetrate other parts of the brain. With an open head injury, the skull is also cracked. The damage to the brain is often only on the spot or near where the skull has burst.

The most common complaints are concentration and memory problems. That is also the reason why they always occur in tests.

In addition, a brain tumor in the brain can also cause various effects. It depends on the location, size and growth rate of the tumor which effects it has. Gliomas are tumors from the glial cells that grow rapidly and meningiomas are slow-growing tumors that press on the brain that originate from the membranes. Tumors are cells that mutate and thus originate from cells that our body already has.

Chronic alcohol abuse can result in neural destruction in the dendrites, especially in the areas important for memory. This can cause amnesia that is also called the disease of Korsakoff, this is mainly due to vitamin deficiency. Affected people mainly have anterograde amnesia. It was found in a study that the brain volume of alcoholics increased after 6-7 weeks without drinking. It was not much, but it did provide hopeful conclusions for interventions.

Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus is a condition in which the cerebrospinal fluid increases. This can cause symptoms such as incontinence and dementia. This often makes it mistaken for other diseases, such as Alzheimer's, while NPH is easily remedied with a catheter that removes the abundant fluid.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by a degeneration of the brain and is the most common form of dementia. Characteristics of the brain are then a reduction of neurons, the shrinking or atrophy of the brain, reduction of acetylcholine transmitters involved in memory and an accumulation in the cerebral vasculature. Plaques and tangles arise. There are many symptoms of dementia. In addition, many normal functions such as language or motor skills are deteriorating more and more quickly. It also happens often that the personality changes.

Vascular dementia is often the result of stroke and is the second most common cause of dementia. This usually happens at once, but sometimes several small strokes can cause a multi-infarct dementia. The symptoms of a stroke are motor weakness, reduced sensation in the body and loss of consciousness. On the basis of a test called MID, a distinction can be made between Alzheimer's and this.

Parkinson's disease occurs in 2 out of 1,000 elderly people. It is primarily a motor disorder, but there are also often cognitive and emotional problems. Tremor is the most common symptom and includes vibrating and shocking movements that can not be stopped.

Behavioral assessment of neuropathology

The mental status of examinations (MSE) is a separate interview that precedes other forms of assessment. Its purpose is to provide an accurate description of the psychological functioning of the patient. The psychologist examines the important areas of personal and intellectual functioning in search of symptoms of psychopathology. It concerns: orientation, memory, thoughts, feelings and judgments.

Another way is to have behavioral scales filled in by acquaintances of the patient. The Behavioral and Psychological Assessment of Dementia (BPAD) is a measurement scale that measures dementia-related changes in behavior among the over-30s. This is done for the last four weeks and five years ago, so that a current, past and a change score can be given. The scores are scored in 7 domains divided over three clusters: psychological, behavior, and biological symptoms.

The Frontal Systems Behavior Scale (FrSBe) has been specially developed to measure symptoms of frontal brain damage. Subscales include apathy, disinhibition and executive dysfunction. This simple, short scale is a good measuring instrument for patients who have symptoms of frontal damage due to different neurodegenerative disorders.

Subject 10B Neuropsychological tests, test batteries and screening tools

Model of brain-behavior relationships

Bennett has developed a simplified model that is useful for the organization of neuropsychological tests. Each test considers one of the following categories:

7. Sensory reception
8. Attention and concentration
9. Learning and memory
10. a) Left hemisphere: language, linear thinking; b) Right hemisphere: visual space, holistic thinking
11. Executive functions
12. Motor output

Executive functions that are tested include logical analysis, concept formation, reasoning, planning, flexibility of thinking.

The order in which the categories are given is roughly the order in which incoming information is processed in the brain. It is important to remember that multiple tests are often used. One type is flexible or patient-centered testing, where an individualized test battery for the client is formed. Another type is an already formed test battery that is taken from each client.

Assessment of sensory input

The accuracy of sensory input is crucial for the competence of perception, thought, planning and action.

The Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination consists of simple tasks that test your sensory ability. Normal people can perform this without error. It is especially striking if the participant makes many mistakes on one side of the body. This may indicate brain damage to the contralateral hemisphere.

Possible loss of sensory power is also tested by the Finger Localization Test. Participants must indicate which of their fingers are being touched. Normal people do this almost perfectly, so errors can indicate damage to the sensory system.

Measures of attention and concentration

It is difficult in practice to distinguish between simple attention, concentration, mental shifts, mental tracking, vigilance and other variants of attention and concentration. The following test was the only one that succeeded here.

The Test of Everyday Attention (TEA) measures the subcomponents of attention, including sustained attention, divided attention and selective attention. This is done through 8 subtests.

The test has been validated in patients with TBI, stroke or Alzheimer's. In addition, the test is also well validated among the normal participants. The TEA can analyze subtests so that the strengths and weaknesses of the participants can be analyzed.

The Continuous Performance Test (CPT) is a family of tests that measure persistent attention. Although they are sensitive to various affected brain conditions, the CPT does not diagnose attention disorders such as ADHD.

Learning and memory tests

Learning and memory are two components that can hardly be investigated separately. Different memory tests therefore examine different types of memory, as was also indicated in chapter 10A. Memory tests can be categorized in different dimensions: short-term versus long-term, verbal versus pictorial, learning-curve versus non-learning curve.

The Wechsler Memory Scale-IV scores nine subtests on five index scores: Immediate Memory Index, Delayed Memory Index, Auditory Memory Index, Visual Memory Index, Visual Working Memory Index. The WMS-IV is well validated under a well-standardized standard group. It is important to remember that when a certain profile is associated with a certain disease, this does not apply the other way round. A patient with Alzheimer's with a distinctive profile does not mean that everyone with the same profile also has Alzheimer's.

The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) includes the free recall of 15 words in any order. The participant is scored on the number of words that he has been able to retrieve in the 5 trials. Persons with a memory problem can be properly diagnosed by the RAVLT. The fact that the test has at least 7 parallel versions is both strength and weakness: a person can be tested more often, but a person learns better each time.

The Fuld Object-Memory Evaluation is a test that is mainly done in the elderly. Participants receive 10 objects that they must feel and name. After a distraction task, a selective reminder task follows in which the objects are described. The task is to retrieve the objects from the memory. The test is mainly used in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's. After all, these patients benefit little from the selective memory. The test had a sensitivity of 93% and a specificity of 90%, so that is very high.

The Rivermead Behavorial Memory Test consists of 12 subtests that reflect everyday memory, such as finding a route, remembering names and retrieving information. The test is popular because of the ecological validity and the different types of memory that are being tested. An online version has also been developed that correlated highly with the original test. This is therefore a promising alternative for face-to-face testing.

The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-2 (WRAML) consists of 6 subtests that contribute to three index scores: Verbal Memory, Visual Memory, and Attention / Concentration. Together they lead to a General Memory Index. The WRAML also tests for delayed memory and recognition, with differences in these memory types occurring mainly in the elderly. In addition, the subtests can be used for measuring working memory. The WMS-II and the WRAML both measure memory, but the correlation between the two is not very high. It can be concluded from this that they measure different aspects of memory and are therefore not interchangeable. The correlation between WISC and WRAML is also not very high, from which it can be concluded that the WRAML measures intelligence-related aspects.

Assessment of language functions

Aphasia includes any deviation in language functions as the result of brain damage. To test aphasia, three ways are used: non-standardized clinical examination, standardized screening or an understanding diagnostic test of aphasia.

A clinical trial has the advantages that it is simple, flexible and concise. Elements that are investigated are: spontaneous speech, repetition of sentences or phrases, comprehension of spoken language, finding words, reading, writing and copying, and calculation. Then this is scored on certain measuring scales.

Standardized screenings correspond to a clinical examination, but contain objective and precise instructions, so subtle symptoms of aphasia often do not come to light. Diagnostic tests are often performed in patients who are already known to have aphasia and are especially useful for treatment planning.

Tests for spatial and manipulatory ability

The term apraxia refers to various dysfunctions in controlling or performing complex motor actions. Tests that measure spatial and manipulation capabilities are also called construct performance tests. These tests combine perceptual activity with motor reactions and always contain a spatial component. Construct capability contains multiple complex functions and therefore limitations are quickly revealed, even when there are mild forms of dysfunction of the brain. It is only the question where the restriction comes from. This can have multiple causes: spatial confusion, perceptual limitations, attention problems, motivation problems or apraxia.

With the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test (BGT), participants are asked to draw pictures. Patients are allowed to draw as slowly or quickly as they wish. Various scoring systems are available. In adults, it looks at possible brain damage, but in children the test is used to examine their mental age. The score that comes from the test is the Visual Motor Integration (VMI), and can easily be compared with IQ scores.

The Greek Cross is a drawing task in which participants have to draw a cross without having to remove their pencil from the paper. There is a scoring guide, but often the quality of the drawing is looked at. The test is sensitive to patients with brain injury. There are also block models, which participants have to recreate. This test is very sensitive to brain injury.

Assessment of executive functions

Executive functions include logical analysis, conceptualization, reasoning, planning and the flexibility of thinking. It is difficult to measure these functions, because it is difficult to properly transfer the task to the client. This problem is often solved by using clinical methods instead of formal testing. There are few tests that measure the executive functions on an acceptable level.

During the Porteus Maze Test, participants must draw a line without lifting up to come out of a series of mazes that are becoming increasingly difficult. The test is sensitive to (traumatic) brain damage. The test measures planning and insight.

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a good test for abstract thinking and the ability to switch sets. Participants receive 64 cards with 1-4 symbols in 4 colors. These have to be divided over 4 stacks in which the tactics are changed after ten good distributions. The examiner says “right” or “wrong” as the examinee lays down the cards. The test is widely used for people with recent brain trauma and to look at the recovery.

In the Tinkertoy test, participants are asked to create as extensive a structure as possible with a sort of old-fashioned K'nex. People with brain damage make only small structures and score worse than people in the control condition. With this, the researchers stated that it is a good test to investigate executive functions, but also for research into Alzheimer's.

A test battery that mainly reflects everyday situations is the Behavorial Assessment of the Dysexecutive System (BADS). It consists of 6 subtests: temporal orientation, changing rule with maps, programming action with materials, searching keys in a set, planning zoo route, completing six activities in 10 minutes. The test is scored in areas: personality / emotional, motivational, behaviour, and cognitive changes.

In addition, the ability to find an unknown place in a city is also a good test, because you need strategy and self-monitoring.

Assessment of motor output

The most widely used test is the finger-tap test. Participants must tap their index finger as much as possible in 10 seconds. Especially a big difference between the different sides (more than 10%) can indicate brain damage.

In the Purdue Pegboard Test, participants must insert pins into holes with the left hand, right hand and then with both hands. The test is good to use with a test battery, but in itself does not serve as a good screening for motor problems. A variation exists where the holes have a ridge, so the pins have to be turned to fit into the hole. This is a good tool for the assessment of (bi-)lateral brain damage.

A final way is that the client gets a sheet with figures drawn on it. It is then the intention that the client tracks the lines of the figure with a brightly colored pen. This can be done well by a 10-year-old and is therefore a good test to look at restrictions in motor regulation. It should be remembered that usable motor tests should use more refined material.

Test batteries for neuropsychological assessment

The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) consists of 269 items scored on 11 clinical scales:

• C1 Motor: coordination, speed, motor skills.
• C2 Rhythm: paying attention to, distinguishing and producing rhythmic stimuli.
• C3 Tactile: identifying tangible stimuli.
• C4 Visual: identify drawings and perform visuo-spatial operations.
• C5 Receptive speech: discrimination of phonemes and understanding of words and sentences.
• C6 Expressive speech: fluently articulate sounds, words and sentences.
• C7 Writing: use of motor skills to write
• C8 Reading
• C9 Arithmetic: simple maths, and solve mathematical structures.
• C10 Memory: memorize verbal and non-verbal stimuli under certain conditions.
• C11 Intelligence: reasoning, concept formation and complex problem solving.

Hereafter, 3 summary scales are scored: pathological, left hemisphere and right hemisphere. The first scale represents the degree of recovery, the second and third must show whether the damage is mainly in the left or right hemisphere. Despite the statistical reliability and validity, there is scepticism about the heterogeneity of clinical scales and the speech scales that are not tested for aphasia.

The Neuropsychological Assessment Battery (NAB) consists of 24 tests that reflect 5 modules: attention, language, memory, spatial and executive functions. The test battery has good ecological validity, which means that the test represents the practical activities in the real world. The reliability differs per module as well as the psychometric validity.

Baseline testing with brief neuropsychological test batteries

Setting up a baseline is important because you can compare scores with it. In this way, it can be checked when someone deviates significantly. Each individual has a different level and other strengths and weaknesses. At least two areas of assessment baseline testing is often used in practice. The first application is the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (ANAM) Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) that is used in the military. The subtests measure reaction time, learning, memory, arithmetic processing, spatial processes, executive functions, and symptoms. The test has been developed to see if there is a traumatic brain injury. The subtests are very sensitive to the impact of injury, degenerative disease, exposure to poison, effects of medication and rehabilitation efforts. The ANAM4 TBI can be used to look at what the soldier is up to in the neurocognitive field compared to previous tests and the norm group. The norm group is carefully subdivided by age and gender and formed by very large samples. Little is known about sensitivity and specificity. The rest of psychometric characteristics are in order.

We also have another computerized test, the ImPACT. This test has been developed to investigate whether athletes can continue playing after a concussion. The test is only usable when an individual baseline is set. The test has good sensitivity (82%) and good specificity (89%). There is criticism of this test, for example there is a lot of false positives. Empirical research supports the idea that this test is suitable for making the decision whether or not an athlete can play. This requires more tests and not just these.

Screening for alcohol abuse disorders

A difference must be made between alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. A person is diagnosed with alcohol abuse if he meets one of the four criteria:

• Drinking interferes with everyday functions.
• Drinking leads to unsafe behavior.
• Drinking causes legal violations.
• Drinking leads to conflicts with a parent or caretaker.

Someone is alcohol dependent if he meets three of the following 7 criteria:

• Increased tolerance for alcohol for the same effect.
• Withdrawal symptoms such as shaking.
• Drink more and longer for longer periods than planned.
• Desire to stop but without success.
• Spending a lot of time drinking alcohol.
• Specifying important activities to drink.
• Continue to drink despite serious health problems.

The CAGE questionnaire is a short screening instrument with questions about whether the person wants to stop drinking, he is annoyed by criticism about his use, he feels guilty about his use and if he has had an eye-opener. There are still doubts about the use and validity of the CAGE. Some researchers say that it works better for men than for women, so there is another screening for women, the TWEAK. This also accurately shows alcohol abuse in women.

In addition, there is also the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory. The SASSI-3 consists of 26 clear questions about substance abuse and 67 subtle questions about symptoms. The validity of the SASSI-3 is very good and it is therefore often used.

Lastly, there is the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). This is an objective index for cognitive functioning and is mainly used in patients with Alzheimer's disease. It consists of 30 questions related to time orientation, direct memory, attention, calculation, language production, language comprehension and design copy. A cut-off score is used that determines whether or not a patient could have Alzheimer's disease. This is exactly 80 to 90% of the cases. The test is recommended as a rapid screening test for the elderly.

When and how are industrial, professional and career assessments done? - Chapter 11

Subject 11A Organization Assessment

Industrial and organizational psychology is concerned with behavior in work situations. I/O psychologists are used, among other things, for business, advertising and the army.

The role of tests in staff selection

Because tests provide valuable information about potential work performance, they are used by many companies and personnel selection organizations. It seems simple: the person who correlates the highest with the given work criterion will perform best. But work behavior is not simple, one-dimensional behavior. In addition, complex behavior often also partly depends on the situation. A perfect approach for selection can therefore still not be valid for everyone. Then you also have to deal with legality. Selection procedures often have such a big impact; the person is or is not accepted, that there are strict rules that must be observed. Personnel selection is therefore a vague, conditional and uncertain task. There are several ways for personnel selection which are discussed in this chapter.

Autobiographical data

The biodata are lists with data from the history of the personal and work past. It also contains demographic information. The biodata is objective and can be scored. The rational aspect of biodata is that work-related behavior can be predicted from choices and goals achieved in the past. The data is collected via questionnaires.

After collecting the biodata, psychologists must predict the work performance by devising means from the collected information. This is done by dividing the existing employees into a successful and unsuccessful group, given work performance, salary and assessments. The biodata are then compared with these two groups. By means of cross validation it is compared with a second group of successful and unsuccessful groups.

Biodata has approximately the same validity as standardized tests. Care must be taken to ensure that no conclusions are drawn from certain demographic factors (age, sex, race), even if this can predict work performance. It has been shown that people are more honest about their biodata, when they have to explain each answer specifically.

There is little doubt that pure objective data can accurately predict work performance. Employers, however, rely more on subjective information, such as the job interview, when they want to hire someone.

The job interview

Although the job interview is only part of the evaluation process, it is the decisive factor for many employees to hire someone. However, previous studies indicate that the job interview is unreliable, given inter-assessments of -.50. In addition, employees are sensitive to the halo-bias: the tendency to estimate someone high or low on all dimensions because of his general impression. Reliability turned out to be higher when interviewed by a panel or when the job interview was standardized.

This same pattern can also be seen in the validity. In earlier studies where unstructured job interviews were examined, the validity turned out to be very bad (-20). But for structured conversations, validity is already much higher (.67). It is important that job interviews are almost always used in combination with other information. Studies indicated that the validity decreases when, in addition to other information (references or objective tests), a long job interview is also used. Studies have only shown that job interviews, when unstructured, can reduce the validity of a job application process.

Interviews can therefore be valid when they are structured and standardized. The problem, however, is that the application of the conversation is often unstructured, which creates unrealistic assessments.

Despite questionable reliability and validity, job interviews are first used to meet potential future employees. Secondly, a lot of research has been done into the handshake of the applicant and the impression of it. A firm handshake gives positive effects and might even lead to the applicant being accepted. This effect applies more strongly to women. Thirdly, it appears that the impression given in the first few minutes, before the job interview, makes a difference on whether the applicant is accepted.

Cognitive ability tests

Cognitive tests can refer to general intelligence or different specific structures. Cognitive tests prove to be reasonably good for personnel selection. One concern with the use of cognitive tests is that it leads to an 'adverse impact' for minorities. That means that whites score better on them. Therefore, the tests must be used in combination with, for example, biodata. Research has shown that tests for general intelligence (the g factor) are a better predictor of work success than specific cognitive measurements.

This is because most jobs are complex and therefore require multiple cognitive skills. Specific cognitive skills are only important because different professions require different skills. A general cognitive measurement can often not bring this to the fore. The tests are fast, inexpensive and easy to interpret. They are used for personnel selection, evaluation and screening.

Wonderlic Peronnel Test-Revised (WPT-R)

This test measures general mental skills and is widely used due to its size (50 items), brevity (12 minutes) and parallel versions (about 16). The reliability is impressive, given the brevity. Internal consistency is around .90 and parallel versions correlate with .90. The validity is also positive, given the correlation of .91 with the WAIS. Disadvantages of the test, however, are that the test is less good for people with visual-spatial impairments and whose native language is not English.

Bennet Mechanical Comprehension Test (BMCT)

This test is mainly used in the understanding of mechanical constructions and principles. This is essential for many work areas. The test consists of images with questions of everyday mechanical and technical basic principles. It is a reliable (split-half from above .80) and valid (.80) test. The test proved to be a very good predictor for pilot successes in the Second World War. The only drawback is that the test and its items are dated and that the test must therefore be modernized.

Minnesota Clerical Test (MCT)

The MCT measures speed and accuracy of perception by means of two subtests: number comparison & name comparison. It can be challenging, because there are 100 equal and 100 unequal combinations that differ by 1 digit or 1 letter. The reliability is around .85, so that's pretty good. The validity is reasonable, but not very good. In addition, due to the vague norm groups, it is also not entirely clear what exactly the test measures, and how the test predicts work performance. The test is relevant for church work.

Personality tests

Before the 'Big Five' was out, empirical support was not used for the interpretation of personality tests for personnel selection. It was the subjective opinion of the psychologist. Previous studies showed that the tests were hardly valid. Only around 1990, with the emerging popularity of the Big Five, there was evidence that personality is a useful factor for personnel selection. After a study it appears that people who describe themselves as reliable, organized and hardworking (high scores on conscientiousness) deliver better work performances. Different tests that measure personality (see chapter 8 ‘on the origin of personality tests’) are valid predictors for work performance.

Integrity tests

An integrity test evaluates attitudes and experiences related to honesty, dependence, trust and pro-social behavior of an applicant. Integrity tests consist of a section that questions attitudes toward illegal behavior and a section that openly questions illegal activity. Integrity tests can easily be falsified and are therefore of lesser value.

Validity studies showed that integrity tests are no good predictors of work performance, but that they have a good correlation with counterproductive work behavior. In this way integrity is a valid factor for personnel selection. However, many critical comments remain about the use of integrity tests. Among other things because of the unqualified users, the influence of situational factors and the lack of optimal cut-off scores.

Work test and situational exercises

A work test is a miniature replica of the job that the applicant has registered for. It must contain the difficult elements of the job that separate good from bad candidates. A validity study found correlations between the .42 and .66 between work performance and assessments of the supervisor.

A situational exercise is often used in the selection of managers and other professional positions. The difference with the work trial is that the situational exercise encompasses the entire job and does not just share it. Work trials and situational exercises are based on the idea that previous performance is the best predictor for future performance in the same domain.

The in-basket test is a situational exercise that includes the work of an administrative assistant. It is scored on answer style and content. Answer style refers to the way a task is completed. Content refers to the thing that had to be done, what the task was. From the scores followed three dimensions: Preparing for action, Amount of work, and Searching for support. It appears that the in-basket test has a good predictive validity.

An assessment center is not necessarily a specific place in the company (as the name might suggest). The goal of an assessment center is to evaluate the managerial potential through all kinds of trainings, such as the in-basket technique. This ensures valid research into new managers. The only question is whether it is effective enough when you look at the high costs for such an assessment center. It has been shown that a maximum effect is achieved when an assessment center is combined with personality tests. The question is therefore whether the costs outweigh the results.

An idea would be to use interviews and cognitive ability tests to sort out the best and worst applicants and then only send those scoring in the middle range to more expensive evaluations.

Assessment of work performance

Assessments are crucial for employees, because without useful feedback, employees do not know how to improve. There are various assessment scales for this. Assessing work performance is a complex problem, often referred to as the criterion problem, the difficulties that arise are related to the description and measurement of performance structures. Work performance is often complex, vague and multidimensional.

Different approaches

A first way to assess work performance is to measure performance. This involves, for example, the amount that an employee has produced or how many sales he has made. There are several problems for this objective and valid method.

• The quantity of production can be beyond the control of the employee.
• For most jobs it is not possible to count an amount.
• Such a quantitative assessment can degrade the quality of production.
• Production counts are unreliable, especially for short time periods.
• The amount of production can only be a small part of the required skills.

As a second way of assessing work performance, the employee's absence is monitored. However, it is a useless measure of work performance, with the exception of the extreme exceptions. The first problem is the definition of absence; the criteria are vague. The second problem is that absence measurements are very unreliable. Finally, the absence rates are generally quite low.

Thirdly, reports from colleagues and self-reporting are used. However, this is not entirely reliable either, because people value themselves higher than colleagues and supervisors have different ideas about what is important in a job than employees.

The rating scales used by the supervisor are the most commonly used method. Despite their mild reliability, these are used for about ¾ of the assessments.

A graphical rating scale consists of characteristics, definitions and a continuum on which a score is scored. It is simple, but the dimension of work performance is vague.

A critical incident scale is based on desirable and undesirable behavior during work. This forms a long list where certain behaviors can then be ticked off. A behavioral anchored rating scale (BARS) is based on behaviors related to the personality and attitudes of the employee. It is a complex, time-consuming and expensive job to develop such a criterium scale.

A behavioral observation scale (BOS) is a variation on the BARS that is scored from 'almost never' to 'almost always' for the specific behaviors. A forced choice scale has been developed to combat bias and subjectivity. Of four items, two are positive and two are negative. Of the positive and negative items there is one that describes the job well. The manager must choose one of the items as 'best descriptive' and one as 'merely descriptive' for the employee.

Sources of bias

A first bias that is made a lot is the halo effect. Employees are rated high or low on all dimensions because of a general impression. Most often, a positive halo effect occurs, so that employees are highly rated because of a good general impression. Halo effects can be countered by special training sessions, reviewing the supervisor as they assess, doing exercises in advance, keeping track of what information is relevant to the assessment, and using managers who are less susceptible to halo effects.

There are various assessor biases. Mildness or strictness provides too mild or too strict assessments. Context errors are made when the employee is judged on the basis of the performance of his colleagues. It is striking that the affect towards the employee does not have much effect on the assessment.

Criterion contamination exists when a criterion measure is subject to factors that do not belong to the job. Opportunity bias arises when different colleagues have different chances of success. Group characteristics bias occurs when group characteristics affect individual performance. Knowledge of predictor bias occurs when the supervisor allows personal knowledge of the employee to play a role in the assessment. With these forms of bias, it is therefore important that the manager makes a clear distinction between what is and is not relevant to the job.

Assessment of work performance is difficult. The method must be psychometrically valid (validity), but must also be consistent with the organizational goals (feasibility). In addition, it is not allowed to discriminate against race, sex and other factors (legality). These three factors often collide with each other. Especially training with assessors can help. Two types of training are mentioned here: rater error training whereby the assessor is trained in finding specific errors. And frame of reference training in which the assessor is trained to become familiar with the content of each performance dimension. Finally, a study was done on cultural differences in assessments of work performance.

They found that agreement between social norms and personal assessment methods resulted in less outflow and absence. Especially the 360 ​​evaluation works well. An employee is assessed by all levels with whom he interacts during his work.

Topic 11B Career assessment in global economy

Career development

Career identity is a concept that has not been around for a long time, but is now indispensable. The career has become a part of who someone is. A job says a lot about someone, something about his personality, economic class and social point of view. Flexibility in career development is needed more than ever by the globalization of the world economy. People also change jobs more often. It is therefore not easy for psychologists to offer guidance in this development. They can therefore not give a simple answer that shows which career someone has to follow.

Functions of work

For many people, work is more than a means of paying for food and housing. However, many disadvantaged people do not have the opportunity to fulfill a career flow. Blustein et al. (2008) provide a meta-analysis for three sets of needs that work can fulfill:

• Survival and power: the most fundamental reasons to work, namely for basic needs and access to economic and social power.
• Social connection: work is the place where our social ties originate. This can again ensure better work performance.
• Self-development: work can be a fulfillment of self-actualization and personal fulfillment.

Origin of theories of career development

In 1909, on the basis of a clear understanding of 1. yourself and your possibilities, 2. The requirements and conditions for success, and 3. reasoning about the relationship between these two, the first questionnaire was drawn up for career choice by Parsons. This consisted of 116 items that had questions about the goals, interests and abilities of the client. The goal was to match personal characteristics with factors of the job, in order to choose the right job.

Theory of the person-environment fit

According to Holland, there are personality types consisting of clusters of personality traits and interests. With this he created the RIASEC model of six personality types with associated work themes:

1. Realistic: taking action.
2. Investigative: thinking, generating ideas.
3. Artistic: aesthetics, creations.
4. Social: connecting and helping.
5. Enterprising: leading people.
6. Conventional: routine and structures.

With the first letters of each type the Holland code be drawn up, since each individual does not have only one type of personality. This model has been very influential.

Theory of person-environment correspondence

Also shortened to PEC, this theory resembles that of Holland in the fact that both theories determine suitable careers based on the person's skills and the qualities required for professions. This leads to 6 crucial values ​​that are important for the assessment of career development:

1. Achievement: the use of one's skills and a sense of success.
2. Altruism: harmony with and serving others.
3. Autonomy: being independent and having a sense of control.
4. Comfort: feeling comfortable and not being stressful.
5. Safety: stability, order and predictability.
6. Status: recognize and fulfill a dominant position.

If these values ​​are met, an employee will soon be satisfied with his job. In addition, there are also environmental styles on a continuum that play a role in completing a profession:

• Celerity: the speed required to respond to requirements.
• Pace: the level of effort that must be delivered to the environment.
• Rhythm: the pattern of response to the environment: stable, cyclic or unstable.
• Endurance: whether the duration of the response to the environment is short or long-term.

The theory corresponds to the model of Holland as both are about matching personality traits to the factors of a job. The only difference is that this theory places more emphasis on the personal abilities necessary for certain professions and not so much on the skills.

Skills can finally be taught, it is important what level the person can achieve with the right training. From this theory a hypothesis has been used that is often used in research: the satisfaction of a person about a job is a function of the match between the available environmental factors with the values ​​of the individual, under the condition that the competence of the person corresponds with what is needed for the job.

Phase theories of career development

Donald Super had a more flexible, holistic, life-course perspective on career development. The individual self-concept changes with time and experience. Thus he identified five professional life stages, also known as the career ladder:

1. Growth phase: observing adult behavior and exploring fantasies and interests in adolescence.
2. Exploration phase: divided into fantasy, experimental, and realistic phases, in which the young adult tries out different training / education.
3. Establishment phase: divided into a trial and stabilization phase, in which the adult enters a company and establishes relationships and promotions.
4. Enforcement phase: the individual may need innovation, must update his skills and see his career stagnate.
5. Decline: the individual is already old and needs specialization, decoupling or retirement.

This theory shows that a career development is lifelong, but it is based on white middle or higher class citizens.

Social cognitive approaches

Social cognitive approaches assume that people learn and develop attitudes about work within a social context through observation and modeling behavior.

Krumboltz developed the 'Happenstance Learning Theory' (HLT). He states that "human behavior is a product of different learning experiences that are available through (un) planned situations in which people find themselves.

The learning outcomes are skills, interests, knowledge, attitudes, preferences, sensitivities, emotions, and future actions. According to him social injustice must be avoided. The theory is based on four premises:

1. Career counseling aims to help clients to learn actions so that their career and personal life is more satisfying, not to give a single career choice.
2. Assessments must be used to stimulate learning, not to match personal characteristics with professional characteristics. He therefore criticizes many tests.
3. Clients learn to use investigative actions so that they can successfully deal with unscheduled events, not to plan all their actions for improvement.
4. Guidance success is evaluated by what the client achieves in the real world, not what happens during the counseling sessions.

The theory is an activity-based theory in which the client and counselor work together to find out what the client can do to learn new things and to seize new opportunities.

O * NET in career development

The Occupational Information Network (O * NET) is a database website, sponsored by the US government, that contains information about thousands of jobs, such as the knowledge, skills and capabilities that are required. In addition, various assessment tools are available, which can also be filled in by yourself.

Tests for career assessment

A first test that is used is the 'Career Beliefs Inventory' (CBI), by Krumboltz. This measures and identifies the attitudes and beliefs that can hold back a career development. Often these are self-limiting beliefs. The CBI must give it awareness and the potential influence it has. The CBI consists of 96 items divided over 25 scales under the following five factors:

1. Your current career situation (4): work status, career plans, acceptance of uncertainty, openness.
2. What is necessary for your happiness (5): achievement / success, education, intrinsic satisfaction, equality to peers, structured work environment.
3. Factors that influence your choices (6): control, responsibility, approval of others, self-others comparison, vocational training variation, career path flexibility.
4. Changes you are willing to make (3): post-training transition, job experimentation, relocation.
5. Effort you are willing to initiate (7): self-improvement, continuing with uncertainty, taking risks, learning job skills, negotiating / searching, overcoming obstacles, working hard.

Standardization was done at 7500 people. Reliabilities were mixed: test-retests between .30 and .70. and internal consistency between .40 and .80. The CBI had an average construct validity.

Tests for interest assessment

Interest assessment is done because of two goals: life satisfaction