Multifinality should be understood in terms of protective and risk factors. Similar stressors can lead to different results as a result of protective or risk factors. In longitudinal studies, people are followed and measured for a long period of time (e.g. 15+ years). These studies provide useful results but are very costly and often have a lot of attrition. In accelerated longitudinal studies researchers study several age groups at the same time and follow these groups for the next few years. This is faster than a longitudinal study but protects against cohort effects of cross-sectional studies. Cross-sectional research refers to studies looking at different age groups at the same time and measuring these groups at one point in time. This does not provide information regarding developmental pathways and there may be cohort effects. There are risk and protective factors across several areas of concern:Academic problems.Social or behavioural problems.Child maltreatment.Physical injuries.Drug use.Physical health problems.The level of influence are individual (1), family (2), peer (3), school (4), community (5) and other (6). There are several common risk factors and protective factors that influence behaviour problems and school failure.Environmental contextRisk factorProtective factorCommunityPoverty, ineffective school policies.Adequate social norms, effective school policies.SchoolPoor quality schools.High quality schools.PeersNegative peer influence or role models.Positive peer influence or role models.FamilyA low SES, history of parent psychopathology, marital conflict and harsh or punitive rearing.Positive parent-child relationship.IndividualEarly onset of problems or additional problems.Good social skills, self-efficacy.OtherDirect or indirect stressful conditions.Direct or indirect social support.There are different levels in Bronfenbrenner’s...

Intellectual disabilities are not an actual medical condition. It is a label used to designate children with subnormal intellectual functioning (i.e. IQ < 70). The DSM-5 (1), AAIDD (2) and the educational system (3) are used for classification of intellectual disability. To be diagnosed with ID in any of the three systems, a low IQ (1), deficits in adaptive functioning (2) and age of onset prior to 18 years of age (3) must be present.American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)They emphasize that classification needs to depend on the degree and nature of support required. It needs to be assessed whether an individual needs services that are intermittent (1), limited (2), extensive (3) or pervasive (4). They believe that support will enhance the functioning and quality of life for individuals with ID. DSM-5This states that a significantly subaverage intellectual functioning (i.e. IQ < 70) (1), concurrent deficits or limitations in adaptive functioning (2) and onset before the age of 18 years (3) is necessary for a diagnosis. The IQ is approximately 70 because intelligence tests are not 100% accurate. There are specifiers for mild-, moderate-, severe- and profound support required. Educational systemWhile this system makes use of deficits in adaptive functioning, the main focus is on IQ cut-off scores. Financial aid is provided to meet he needs of infants and toddlers with developmental delays. A developmental delay also makes these children eligible for special education. Global developmental delay refers to a diagnosis which indicates that a child is not meeting developmental expectations in some areas of intellectual development. This diagnosis is only given to children under the age of 5 and can be seen as a temporary category.A developmental delay refers to a delay of 35% or more in one of five developmental areas (i.e. cognitive; motor; speech and language; social/emotional; adaptive...

Learning disability often refers to an intellectual disability. A specific learning disability or specific learning disorder often refers to dyslexia. Diagnosis was based on the discrepancy between an individual’s intellectual functioning and one’s academic functioning. However, it was not sure how this should be applied (1), critique that it favours older children and people with higher IQ (2) and concerns that this model is failure based (3). Another method of diagnosing is response to intervention (RTI) which refers to a tiered system of interventions that can be applied and failure to respond is a criteria for SLD. However, this does not take IQ into account. According to the DSM-5, a specific learning disorder occurs when there are academic skills that are substantially and quantifiable below those expected for somebody’s chronological age. When a sensory deficit is present, the learning disorder must be in excess of what would be expected given that deficit.Prevalence rates of SLD are 2% to 10% although this varies widely due to definitional issues. Children with learning disabilities have more social difficulties. Social skills deficits can represent an SLD though social deficits can occur without an academic deficit. Social skills deficits may also emerge prior to SLD and persist into adulthood. Children with a SLD are more often neglected or rejected by peers. Social competence can be undermined in three ways:Skill deficitThis holds that the individual has not learned the required skill.Performance deficitThis holds that the individual has the skill but does not apply it.Self-control deficitThis holds that the individual demonstrates aversive behaviours that compete or interfere with the acquisition and performance of appropriate social skills.Social competence refers to a trait that determines the probability of completing a social task in an acceptable way. Social skills refer to the behaviours that are exhibited in...

Autism spectrum disorder refers to disorders that meet criteria in two broad symptom categories:- Deficits in social communication and social interactionThere must be deficits in social-emotional reciprocity (1), non-verbal communication (2) and the development and maintenance of relationships (3). - Restricted repetitive patterns of behaviourThere must be two of four symptoms present (i.e. motor movements; rituals; fixated interests; hyper/hypo response to sensory information). 75% of the people diagnosed with autism also have an intellectual disability. However, this may be different in the DSM-5. The onset of ASD is during early development, around 2 years of age. Symptoms may not manifest until later in people with mild versions of the disorder or manifest earlier in people with more severe variants of the disorder.The prevalence of autism is 1% and 4 times more males than females are diagnosed. The prevalence rate of ASD has been increasing but it is unclear whether this is due to an actual increase or differences in diagnostics. It is likely that the increase is due to better methodology and improved awareness.Asperger’s syndrome may be a less severe type of autism though it may also be a separate category due to differences in language development. These children tend to have more verbal rituals and ask odd questions. The group with high-functioning autism (HFA) demonstrates more atypical speech patterns (e.g. echolalia, noun reversal, atypical gestures). It is difficult to differentiate high-functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome solely on the basis of diagnosis. Children with autism have difficulties with theory of mind. However, children with mild autism are able to solve these problems while children with more severe autism cannot. Symptom category ExamplesQualitative and persistent impairment in social interaction and communication across three broad areas (three symptoms). • Social reciprocity: sharing...