Multifinality should be understood in terms of protective and risk factors. Similar stressors can lead to different results as a result of protective or risk factors. In longitudinal studies, people are followed and measured for a long period of time (e.g. 15+ years). These studies provide useful results but are very costly and often have a lot of attrition. In accelerated longitudinal studies researchers study several age groups at the same time and follow these groups for the next few years. This is faster than a longitudinal study but protects against cohort effects of cross-sectional studies. Cross-sectional research refers to studies looking at different age groups at the same time and measuring these groups at one point in time. This does not provide information regarding developmental pathways and there may be cohort effects. There are risk and protective factors across several areas of concern:Academic problems.Social or behavioural problems.Child maltreatment.Physical injuries.Drug use.Physical health problems.The level of influence are individual (1), family (2), peer (3), school (4), community (5) and other (6). There are several common risk factors and protective factors that influence behaviour problems and school failure.Environmental contextRisk factorProtective factorCommunityPoverty, ineffective school policies.Adequate social norms, effective school policies.SchoolPoor quality schools.High quality schools.PeersNegative peer influence or role models.Positive peer influence or role models.FamilyA low SES, history of parent psychopathology, marital conflict and harsh or punitive rearing.Positive parent-child relationship.IndividualEarly onset of problems or additional problems.Good social skills, self-efficacy.OtherDirect or indirect stressful conditions.Direct or indirect social support.There are different levels in Bronfenbrenner’s...

Intellectual disabilities are not an actual medical condition. It is a label used to designate children with subnormal intellectual functioning (i.e. IQ < 70). The DSM-5 (1), AAIDD (2) and the educational system (3) are used for classification of intellectual disability. To be diagnosed with ID in any of the three systems, a low IQ (1), deficits in adaptive functioning (2) and age of onset prior to 18 years of age (3) must be present.American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)They emphasize that classification needs to depend on the degree and nature of support required. It needs to be assessed whether an individual needs services that are intermittent (1), limited (2), extensive (3) or pervasive (4). They believe that support will enhance the functioning and quality of life for individuals with ID. DSM-5This states that a significantly subaverage intellectual functioning (i.e. IQ < 70) (1), concurrent deficits or limitations in adaptive functioning (2) and onset before the age of 18 years (3) is necessary for a diagnosis. The IQ is approximately 70 because intelligence tests are not 100% accurate. There are specifiers for mild-, moderate-, severe- and profound support required. Educational systemWhile this system makes use of deficits in adaptive functioning, the main focus is on IQ cut-off scores. Financial aid is provided to meet he needs of infants and toddlers with developmental delays. A developmental delay also makes these children eligible for special education. Global developmental delay refers to a diagnosis which indicates that a child is not meeting developmental expectations in some areas of intellectual development. This diagnosis is only given to children under the age of 5 and can be seen as a temporary category.A developmental delay refers to a delay of 35% or more in one of five developmental areas (i.e. cognitive; motor; speech and language; social/emotional; adaptive...

Learning disability often refers to an intellectual disability. A specific learning disability or specific learning disorder often refers to dyslexia. Diagnosis was based on the discrepancy between an individual’s intellectual functioning and one’s academic functioning. However, it was not sure how this should be applied (1), critique that it favours older children and people with higher IQ (2) and concerns that this model is failure based (3). Another method of diagnosing is response to intervention (RTI) which refers to a tiered system of interventions that can be applied and failure to respond is a criteria for SLD. However, this does not take IQ into account. According to the DSM-5, a specific learning disorder occurs when there are academic skills that are substantially and quantifiable below those expected for somebody’s chronological age. When a sensory deficit is present, the learning disorder must be in excess of what would be expected given that deficit.Prevalence rates of SLD are 2% to 10% although this varies widely due to definitional issues. Children with learning disabilities have more social difficulties. Social skills deficits can represent an SLD though social deficits can occur without an academic deficit. Social skills deficits may also emerge prior to SLD and persist into adulthood. Children with a SLD are more often neglected or rejected by peers. Social competence can be undermined in three ways:Skill deficitThis holds that the individual has not learned the required skill.Performance deficitThis holds that the individual has the skill but does not apply it.Self-control deficitThis holds that the individual demonstrates aversive behaviours that compete or interfere with the acquisition and performance of appropriate social skills.Social competence refers to a trait that determines the probability of completing a social task in an acceptable way. Social skills refer to the behaviours that are exhibited in...

Autism spectrum disorder refers to disorders that meet criteria in two broad symptom categories:- Deficits in social communication and social interactionThere must be deficits in social-emotional reciprocity (1), non-verbal communication (2) and the development and maintenance of relationships (3). - Restricted repetitive patterns of behaviourThere must be two of four symptoms present (i.e. motor movements; rituals; fixated interests; hyper/hypo response to sensory information). 75% of the people diagnosed with autism also have an intellectual disability. However, this may be different in the DSM-5. The onset of ASD is during early development, around 2 years of age. Symptoms may not manifest until later in people with mild versions of the disorder or manifest earlier in people with more severe variants of the disorder.The prevalence of autism is 1% and 4 times more males than females are diagnosed. The prevalence rate of ASD has been increasing but it is unclear whether this is due to an actual increase or differences in diagnostics. It is likely that the increase is due to better methodology and improved awareness.Asperger’s syndrome may be a less severe type of autism though it may also be a separate category due to differences in language development. These children tend to have more verbal rituals and ask odd questions. The group with high-functioning autism (HFA) demonstrates more atypical speech patterns (e.g. echolalia, noun reversal, atypical gestures). It is difficult to differentiate high-functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome solely on the basis of diagnosis. Children with autism have difficulties with theory of mind. However, children with mild autism are able to solve these problems while children with more severe autism cannot. Symptom category ExamplesQualitative and persistent impairment in social interaction and communication across three broad areas (three symptoms). • Social reciprocity: sharing...

To provide care to people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is imperative to screen for this disorder and to adequately diagnose it. Early evaluation can be useful. Diagnosis is best accomplished with standardized tests, developmental history and a clinical interview. The prevalence of ASD is 110 per 10.000. Early intensive treatments appear to have the best outcomes. This emphasizes the need for early screening and diagnosis. Early diagnosis is affected by reluctance to express concern by parents (1), failure to be provided prompt assessment and diagnosis (2) and a failure of parents or professionals to detect signs of ASD (3). While ASD is believed to exist at birth, there are no biological markers and assessment and diagnosis thus relies on standardized tests and behavioural observation. Parent observations are useful for early detection, especially speech regression (1), loss of motor skills (2), poor visual tracking (3) and a lack of joint attention (4). Factors that helped differentiate children with ASD from children with no or another developmental disorder were less looking at others (1), failure to respond to their name (2), less eye contact (3) and fewer positive facial expressions (4). People with ASD are so heterogeneous that it is unlikely that there will be one gold standard for a test. To assess ASD, three things need to be taken into account. Early life scales (i.e. children from 1 to 3 years old).Progress across the lifespan on the core symptoms (i.e. communication; social skills; rituals; stereotypes).High-rate co-occurring problems (e.g. challenging behaviours; psychopathology).It is essential to have a structured observation and attempts to elicit core symptoms. Historical data on developmental milestones, socialization and communication also need to be collected. Parents may over or underreport symptoms, as reflected by the lack of correlation between the clinician and the parent reports. In this case,...

In the Munich Model of Giftedness (MMG), giftedness refers to a multi-factorized ability construct within a network of non-cognitive (e.g. motivation; interests) and social moderators which are related to the giftedness factors (i.e. predictors) and the exceptional performance areas (i.e. criterion variables). Giftedness typically refers to the presence of a talent desired in the culture and the expression thereof. It does not necessarily mean an IQ of 130 or higher. Intelligence typically refers to a computational capacity to procss a certain kind of information. This entails the ability to solve a problem in a particular cultural setting. This means that what is seen as intelligent depends on the culture. Intelligences are thus potentialities and not things that can be counted. Something can be seen as an intelligence when there is localization of the functions in a brain area (1), evolutionary relevance (2) and a set of symbols (e.g. letters) (3).There are eight type of intelligences:LinguisticThis refers to the ability to think in words and to use language to express and understand compex meanings (e.g. sensitivty to the meaning of words; reflect on the use of language).Logical-mathematicalThis refers to the ability to think of cause and effect connections and to understand relationships among actions, objects or ideas. It includes calculating, quantifying or considering propositions and performing complex mathematical or logical operations.Visual-spatialThis refers to the ability to think in pictures and to perceive the world accurately.MusicalThis refers to the ability to think in sounds, rhythms, melodies and rhymes (i.e. sensitive to musical aspects; recognize, create and reproduce music by using an instrument or voice). KinestheticThis refers to the ability to think in movements and to use the body in skilled and complicated ways for expressive and goal-directed activities.InterpersonalThis refers to the ability to...

There are five views on giftedness:Giftedness refers to a high intellectual functioning (i.e. high IQ).Giftedness refers to a high sensitivity and thus an emotional fragility.Giftedness refers to people who are creative and have innovative ideas.Giftedness refers to people who have had unequal opportunities.Giftedness refers to people who practice a lot.However, giftedness may be a developmental process that is domain specific and malleable. The path to outstanding performance begins with potential but giftedness must be developed and sustained by way of training and interventions in domain-specific skills (1), the acquisition of psychological and social skills to pursue difficult new paths (2) and the individual’s conscious decision to engage fully in a domain (3). The process of talent development consists of talent identification and talent promotion. There are several essential points when it comes to giftedness:Abilities associated with specific domain or talent matter (1), are malleable (2) and need to be cultivated (3).Domains of talent have developmental trajectories that vary within domains (i.e. when they start, peak, end). Opportunities need to be provided by the community at every stage in the talent-development process and the individual needs to take advantage of these opportunities.Psychosocial variables are determining factors in the successful development of giftedness.Eminence is the aspired outcome of gifted education. Giftedness does not manifest itself in the same way in children and adults. Giftedness refers to the manifestation of performance that is clearly at the upper end of the distribution in a talent domain even relative to other high-functioning individuals in that domain. In the beginning of giftedness, potential is key. Later, achievement becomes a measure of giftedness and lastly, excellence is what makes somebody gifted. Psychosocial variables play an essential role in the manifestation of...

Dyslexia refers to a language problem relating to the analysis of words in print. Identification of dyslexia often makes use of an exclusion criterion (e.g. IQ-achievement discrepancy) rather than several criteria. However, this exclusion criterion does not fit dyslexia properly as IQ tests in English are not reliable for a bilingual child whose language proficiency in English is still developing (e.g. immigrant children). The gap between indigenous and immigrant children decrease when immigrant children have been in the country for longer. This may lead children who are bilingual to not be identified as having a specific learning disorder (e.g. dyslexia). IQ is likely to be underestimated in bilingual children while avoidance of IQ-tests will lead to under-identification. It may thus be useful to use a definition of dyslexia which does not make use of exclusionary criteria. Dyslexia is evident when fluent and accurate word reading and/or spelling develops very incompletely or with great difficulty. The problem is severe and persistent despite appropriate learning opportunities. Differences in the orthography of a language influences the development of dyslexia. It is important to look at bilingualism in broad terms to properly detangle the effects of bilingual development on the development of dyslexia and vice versa. There are three dimensions to describe people’s associations with a language:ExpertiseThis refers to the degree of proficiency in a language.AffiliationThis refers to the affective relationship with a language.InheritanceThis refers to membership of a particular language tradition (e.g. by birth; by family)Only looking at monolingual and bilingual children may use overinclusive categories and may neglect the emotional importance and developmental impact of affiliation and inheritance factors. Literacy practices in school may contradict expectations brought from other experiences for some children. Contextual factors in...

Acculturation refers to phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups.Gordon’s unidimensional acculturation model states that acculturation is a process of change in the direction of the mainstream culture. The outcome is adaptation to the mainstream culture. Unidimensional models are controversial as migrants more often desire to have a bicultural identity due to the increasing magnitude of migration and a change in the view of migrants (i.e. more accepting climate). Berry’s bidimensional acculturation model states that the degree of acculturation depends on the degree of adaptation and the degree of cultural maintenance. This leads to several strategies:Integration (i.e. biculturalism)This refers to the combination of both cultures and has the preference of migrants. SeparationThis refers to maintaining the original culture and not adapting to the host culture.AssimilationThis refers to complete absorption of the host culture with loss of the original culture.MarginalisationThis refers to the loss of the original culture without adapting to the host culture (i.e. negative view of both cultures). It is important to take acculturation into account with assessment as it is necessary to know whether the person is part of the population on which an instrument has been tested and whether the instrument can measure the intended construct with that person (e.g. may not be possible due to implicit assumptions of the instrument about general knowledge). Acculturation can be a moderator of test performance. A culture refers to a largely shared, unchanging and internalised sets of beliefs, values and practices which are transmitted across generations and which constrain human behaviour in context. Individuals differ in their level and strategy of acculturation. To measure acculturation, it...

Children with mathematical difficulties have particular impairments in understanding and processing numerical magnitudes. The defective number module hypothesis states that a highly specific deficit of an innate capacity to understand and represent quantities leads to difficulties in learning number and arithmetic. The access deficit hypothesis states that mathematical difficulties originate from impairments in accessing numerical meaning (i.e. their quantity) from symbols rather than from difficulties in processing numerosity.Infants and young children are able to understand and manipulate numerical magnitude information by means of non-symbolic representations (e.g. discriminate between large sets of dots). Non-symbolic representations are characterized by a distance effect. This holds that the numerical difference (i.e. distance) between two sets that need to be compared is small, performance is slower and less accurate than when the distance is large (e.g. comparing 7 to 442 is easier than comparing 23 to 22). This effect may occur due to overlapping internal representations of numerical magnitudes. A magnitude that is closer to another has a larger representational overlap and this makes it more difficult to compare. The size of the distance effect is an indicator for the preciseness of representations of numerical magnitudes and this effect decreases over development.Mathematics development requires children to map symbolic representations (e.g. Arabic numerals) onto pre-existing non-symbolic representations of magnitudes. Children’s representations of magnitude (i.e. number line estimation task) is predictive of their learning of answers to novel mathematics problems. Representations of magnitude are impaired in children with mathematical difficulties.In the symbolic comparison task, children indicate the numerically larger of two simultaneously presented numbers. In the non-symbolic comparison task, the same happens but with dots...

There is a dedicated brain area for acquiring oral language but not for written language (i.e. reading). The reading circuit consists of neural systems that support every level of language and includes visual and orthographic processes, working memory, attention, motor movements and higher-level comprehension and cognition. Each component works smoothly with accuracy and speed as reading develops automaticity (i.e. making reading more automatic). Fluency (i.e. fluent comprehension) refers to a manner of reading in which all sublexical units, words and connected text and all the perceptual, linguistic and cognitive processes involved in each level are processed accurately and automatically so that sufficient time and resources can be allocated to comprehension and deeper thought. This means that reading needs to be both accurate and automatic. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) refers to a mini-circuit of the later-developing reading circuitry. RAN tasks include naming a series of familiar items as quickly as possible and this requires the reading circuit and can thus be used to assess reading fluency. RAN tasks depend on automaticity within and across each individual component in the naming circuit. It is a universal process that predict the young child’s later ability to connect and automize whole sequences of letters and words with their linguistic information regardless of writing system. RAN may be predictive of later reading because it includes the ability to automate both the individual linguistic and perceptual components and the connections among them in visually presented serial tasks. RAN latencies are related to how automized the naming process is. Reading difficulties can be developmental (e.g. dyslexia) and acquired (e.g. alexia). The core deficit in alexia includes a disconnection between the visual and verbal processes in the brain. Phonological awareness refers to the explicit ability to identify and manipulate the sound units...