Lecture 2 Physical development Part 1 Two times in the life where we grow a lot: two first years in your life and the years during early puberty development. The adolescent is now old enough to see these changes. Pubertal development Puberty: the transitional process during which the primary sex characteristics (e.g, testes, ovaries) and secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair) mature resulting in the capacity to reproduce. The changes that occur at puberty have their origins prenatally. Gonads develop during fetal growth Fetuses start off with a female design In males androgens are secreted by the gonads initiating the process that results in male sex organs and has organizing influences on the developing brain, specifically the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Five areas of change Maturation of reproductive organs, secondary sex characteristics Nervous and endocrine systems Skeletal growth Body composition & distribution of fat and muscle Circulatory and respiratory systems People don't go through it at the same age. Picture of three 14 years old. Three different ways of speaking about puberty: Pubertal timing: early, on-time, late Pubertal status: stage Where are you along the process? Really no development Start to see changes Advanced change More advanced Adult body status Pubertal tempo: rate Tempo of pubertal development: how fast do you go through these processes? Early/late puberty > teasing: what does this with your psychological wellbeing? The three different ways can come together: early puberty, but fast (etc.) Regulation of hormonal changes Two major feedback systems associated with puberty HPG axis hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis HPA axis hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal Both use negative feedback to determine the amount of circulating hormones. Two relatively independent...

Lecture 4 Morality: right and wrong. How do we know what is right/wrong? Trolley problem 1 There is a runaway trolley barreling down the railway tracks. Ahead there are 5 people tied to the tracks. You are standing near a level that will switch the trolley to a different track where 1 person is tied. Should you pull the lever to divert the runaway trolley onto the sidetrack? Clash between utilitarianism – (actions that maximize happiness and well-being) and deontological ethics – the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based on the consequences of that action… 2 options: do nothing and allow the trolley to kill 5 people, or pull the lever divert the train and kill one? Trolley problem 2 A trolley is hurtling down a track towards five people. You are on a bridge under which it will pass, and you can stop it by putting something very heavy in front of it. There is a very fat man next to you – your only way to stop the trolley is to push him over the bridge and onto the track, killing him to save five. Should you proceed? Most people: do nothing, don't push an innocent person. This solution is essentially an application of the doctrine of double effect, which says that you may take action which has bad side effects, but deliberately intending harm (even for good causes) is wrong. Different rationale for making the same decision. Trolley problem A moral dilemma is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and have moral reasons for choosing each action. Trolley problem 1: Utilitarianism (greatest good; 1 person dead is better) vs. Deontological ethics (moral action regardless of consequence; putting the lever gets you involved in a situation > you become in a criminal act) Trolley problem 2: Utilitarianism: push the person Deontological: you don't push the person. Don'...

Lecture 6 Family relations Part 1 How and why do (dynamics of) parents-adolescent relationships change during adolescence? How are adolescents affected by (changing) experiences in the parent-adolescent relationship, and vice versa? What is family? Dictionary definition: married, 2-parent, biological offspring But: different forms and sizes Definition may be culture-dependent Structures common ‘historically’ are not as common today Ruggles: Fragmentary household (1 parent, divorced etc.): increased Extended households (multiple generations, family-units): decreased In white and in non-white. But different slope of decrease and increase In all societies, the family fulfills similar functions: Socialization of children/adolescents Enduring source of (practical/economic & emotional/social) support Continuity of relationships across the life course = social embedding The family as a system Focus traditionally on mother (primary caregiver)-child/adolescent relationship Family systems theory: an organized whole, consisting of interrelated parts that influence each other System: set of elements standing in interrelation among themselves and with the environment Interrelation: not A affects B, but A & B affect each other Changing, self-organizing, and adapting to (changes in) its members and the outside environment System is flexible, but strives for stability (= equilibrium: each person a particular role) Family = cohesive emotional unit (emotional bond) Three aspects – family system theory Holism To understand family, not enough to look at members separately Roles (e.g., caretaker) Illustration of depression: mother can't take her role > influences the system > the child takes the ‘mother'-role ‘hierarchy’/structure Organized into subsystems By gender or generations Dyadic relationship Marital...

Lecture 8 Part 1 – adolescents in school Schools: Educate young people: prepare them for adulthood Define young persons’ social world Context in which they spend most of their waking hours Shape their psychosocial development Classroom factors: Classroom climate Teachers' expectations Instructional quality Emphasis on performance vs learning (grades) Friends' engagement Peer norms Social organizations of schools School transition at age 12 Educational tracks Select school Admission by lottery School size Part 2 – Dutch school system NL: freedom of education Guiding principle in educational governance is article 23 of the Constitution: Education shall be the constant concern of the Government All persons shall be free to provide education (start their own school), without prejudice to the authorities’ right of supervision Then: protestants vs Catholics Now: many different school types Based on religion Based on teaching philosophy Relatively easy to change teaching principles as long as it meets the quality criteria Consequences of freedom of education for classroom climate Diversity educational approaches Relatively large differences in learning outcomes in different schools Consistency values home & school Segregation: similar peers “free-market system” (popularity of schools varies > competition between schools) NL: early educational tracking Level on which they receive their teaching Red countries: single school for both primary and lower secondary education Pink: transition between primary and lower secondary education, but still with common core curriculum for students Blue: differentiated branches/tracks Decrease in combined educational tracks in the 1st year of secondary school E.g., havo-vwo Consequences of early educational tracking for classroom climate Instruction adapted to level of...

Lecture 10 Love and sex Part 1 &2 – Adolescent romance Not only being in a romantic relationship, but also: Daydreaming about the person in front of you in class with whom you have never spoken Claims to have a boyfriend, but denied by the boy Talk on phone everyday (or texting), but never seen in public together for fear of being ridiculed Going together but only spend time together with other members of their crowd Going steady for 3 years (the “real” thing) Fantasies to interactions to relationships = romantic experiences Romance Love or romance is central theme in 68% of pop music One of top 5 script themes for adolescent characters on TV Adolescent girls attribute 34% of their strong emotions to real or fantasized heterosexual relationships Adolescent boys 25% Substantially higher than any other topic Organizing principles of peer culture Focal topic of conversation in leisure time Romantic relationship Romantic Relationship = mutually acknowledged ongoing voluntary interactions. Compared to other peer relationships, romantic ones typically have a distinctive intensity, commonly marked by expressions of affection and current or anticipated sexual behavior. Applies to same-gender, as well as mixed-gender, relationships. Romantic experiences Refers to activities and processes that include romantic relationships and also behavioral, cognitive, and emotional phenomena that do not involve direct experiences with a romantic partner. Includes: fantasies and one-sided attractions (“crushes”), interactions with potential romantic partners (including flirting) and Brief, nonromantic sexual encounters (e.g., “hooking up,” or casual involvement in activities usually thought to take place with romantic partners, from “making out” to intercourse) Adolescent romance Romantic relationships support the development of interpersonal skills and promote a...

Lecture 12 Depression, self-harm and suicide Moods and emotions Relatively sudden changes in both positively- and negatively valanced affect The intensity and/or frequency of negative emotion peaks in early adolescence Young adolescents also experience less positive emotions Emotions become more complex with a comprehension of mixed emotions Dramatic changes of mood The incidence of dysphoric or depressed moods radically increases, especially for girls Social aspects of emotion expression and regulation become more developed Increased in the ability to mask emotions The use of emotion to manage relationships Yet, emotional expression during early adolescence The social referencing aspects of emotion become highly attuned in early adolescence, there is a sharp increase in the awareness of other's perceptions of the self, and therefore shame More daily fluctuations in self-esteem Adolescents are more “moody” or variable in their emotions across the course of a day or week Changes in negative and positive mood in mid-adolescence Significant drop in positive mood, no change in negative mood Mood variability across adolescence using daily internet diaries Three times a year at age 13-18 4 different moods: happiness, sadness, angry, anxiety Steady decrease across mid- to late adolescence in variability Anxiety: does not show the same pattern, slight decrease but not an entire decrease Moodiness decreases across adolescent period Depression in all its forms Depression: an enduring period of sadness Depressed mood: an enduring period of sadness, without any other related symptoms Depressive syndrome: sadness plus other symptoms such as crying, feelings of worthlessness, and feeling guilty, lonely or worried Major depressive disorder: depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities plus 4 of other symptoms (for at least 2...

Lecture 12b the end of adolescence When does adolescence end? In the past – criteria that have been used to mark entry into adulthood include: Events such as marriage, child-bearing Important responsibilities to provide, protect, and procreate – duties towards others Gender-specific criteria Average age of marriage in the Netherlands 1950-2018 Shift in percentage who marry + older ages Average age of the mother at the birth of a child in NL in 2018 29,9. Age of marriage: 35 Shift in society to say that we don't need to marry first to have children Demographic distinctions Median age of marriage and child birth is now much later than it was in the past Young people attend school and college longer than in the past In addition, more young people are going to college before starting work From jobs to career Arnett's theory of emerging adulthood Influenced by theories of Erikson: prolonged adolescence Love, work, worldviews Levinson: novice phase 17-33 Keniston: youth (role exploration) What is emerging adulthood? In Western cultures, could last from about 18 until the mid 20's A life period which is typically characterized by an ongoing exploration of, and experimentation with possible life directions Young people have left the dependency of childhood and adolescence, but have not entered the enduring responsibilities of adulthood Emerging: it is a process of becoming an adult In Western cultures Young people no longer consider marriage and other events (such as finishing school, getting a job, etc.) as criteria for adulthood They emphasize the capacity of the individual to stand alone as a self-sufficient person as the criterion for adulthood Top 3 criteria defining adulthood Responsible behavior, accept one's responsibility Autonomous, independent decision making Financial independence Individualistic...