Cultural tools refer to any tools that help us calculate, produce models, make predictions and understand the world more fully. Orthographies, writing systems, differ greatly. Alphabetic scripts are a writing system in which written symbols correspond to spoken sounds. In Chinese, each letter corresponds to a morpheme. Children find it difficult to realize that letters represent phonemes. Children get better at phonemes as they get older. Instruction is necessary for learning how to read and write. The environment plays a key role. The more children have learned about phonemes, the better they read and write. Phonemic awareness is the idea that words consist of a sequence of phonemes. This idea does not come easily to young children. Phonological skills refer to the ability to detect and manipulate sounds at the phonetic, syllabic and intra-syllabic levels. Intrasyllabic units are units of speech that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes. An example of intrasyllabic units is rime (the unit that rhymes). Most children are aware of rimes from an early age. There is a positive relationship between sensitivity to rhyme and success in reading.Conditional spelling rules are rules which determine that a letter or a group of letters represent one sound in one context and another sound in a different context. At first, children stick to a letter-sound association and don’t pay a lot of attention to conditional rules. Children only pass the pseudo-word test at the age of 10. In this test, children show that they understand the rule of the ‘silent-e’. Children’s success in reading determines how well they learn this particular spelling rule. In morpho-phonemic script, spelling rules are based on phonemes and on morphemes. Inflectional morphemes tell you something about the grammatical status of the word (e.g: tells you something about whether the word is plural or not). Derivational morphemes change the meaning of the word.The difficulty...


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An Introduction to Developmental psychology by A. Slater and G. Bremner (third edition) - Chapter 15

An Introduction to Developmental psychology by A. Slater and G. Bremner (third edition) - Chapter 15

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Moral dilemmas are situations in which people must choose and justify a course of action or reasoning with respect to a moral issue. Piaget concluded that younger children’s moral judgement was governed by unilateral respect for adults and adults’ rules, with little understanding of reciprocity or the intentions of others. Kohlberg defined five stages of moral development:

  1. Heteronomous morality (punishment orientation)
    Moral reasoning in which children believe that right and wrong are determined by powerful adult figures.
  2. Instrumental morality (personal gain)
    Children in this stage reason from their personal gain.
  3. Interpersonal normative morality (social evaluation)
    Children in this stage seek to be viewed as good and feel guilt when it is likely that others condemn their behaviour. Individuals are concerned with how the self is evaluated by others.
  4. Social system morality (social order)
    Children in this stage argue that rules and laws are necessary in order to preserve social order.
  5. Human rights and social welfare morality (morality of conscience)
    Individuals int his stage make use of ethical principles to guide moral judgements. The rightness of an action depends upon whether the action is consistent with the rules that individuals would accept for an ideal world.

Kohlberg claimed that development across childhood and adolescence is characterised by sequential passage through stages. Stage 1 and 2 are most common in children with stage 3 emerging in adolescents. Stage 5 appears in adulthood, even though it remains fairly rare. Individuals generally move up one stage at a time. Regression over time Is rare. There is a strong positive linear relationship between educational attainment and moral stage.

A very common criticism of Kohlberg is that the sorts of justifications offered for moral dilemmas are not associated with action. Those who reason at higher stages are more likely to act pro-socially than those who reason at lower stages. Moral stages represent ways of thinking about moral issues, not specific behavioural tendencies. Individuals at different stages can choose the same action, but for different reasons.

There is some sort of moral cognition, a set of heuristics, which is shown by the fact that most moral judgements are made fairly quick with essentially no conscious deliberation of using certain rules.

Children make sharp distinctions between moral and non-moral domains. Moral domains are unlikely to be used in reasoning about all social issues. Aggression can perhaps be understood in terms of the attributions children make rather than moral stages. Attributions refer to the belief one holds as to why people carry out a particular action or behaviour.

There is evidence for the existence of the moral stages 2, 3 and 4 in non-western cultures, although stage 5 is not present in non-western cultures.