Deze aantekeningen zijn gebaseerd op Developmental Psychopathology in 2016/2017 Bij het vak Ontwikkelingspsychologie in jaar 1 van de bachelor psychologie is er gekeken naar wat normaal gedrag is bij kinderen en hoe de normale ontwikkeling verloopt. Ontwikkelingspsychopathologie richt zich op de problematiek in de ontwikkeling of het gedrag van kinderen. Bij dit vak wordt er gekeken naar wat de problemen zijn en hoe deze zich ontwikkelen. Er wordt ook aandacht besteed aan hoe deze problemen behandeld kunnen worden, maar dat is niet de focus van dit vak. Onder abnormaal gedrag wordt verstaan: ‘alles dat afwijkt van normaal’. Om te begrijpen hoe abnormale ontwikkeling verloopt, is het belangrijk dat je eerst weet wat normale ontwikkeling is. Daarom wordt er gebruik gemaakt van normen die aangeven wat 'normaal' is. Zo zijn er ontwikkelingsnormen, normen van geslacht, situationele normen, culturele normen en ook spelen de rol van ouders en veranderende ideeën van wat normaal is een belangrijke rol. Er is sprake van normaal vs. abnormaal-, problematisch vs. niet problematisch- en functioneel vs. disfunctioneel gedrag.Als een kind afwijkt van de ontwikkelingsnormen kun je bijvoorbeeld denken aan een vertraging of versnelling van de ontwikkeling. Een voorbeeld van een ontwikkelingsnorm is het slaappatroon van kinderen. Naarmate een kind ouder wordt verandert het aantal uren dat een kind...


Access options

The full content is only visible for JoHo WorldSupporter members with full online access.

  • For information about international JoHo WorldSupporter memberships, read more here.
  • Are you already a member?
    • During the account creation you can select 'I am a JoHo WorldSupporter Member with full online access'.
    • Became a member after you've created the account, or you upgraded your membership, then you can change the settings of your account on your WorldSupporter user page
  • or fill out the contact form

 

For Dutch visitors

Toegang tot pagina of document:

Word JoHo donateur voor online toegang

Je bent al donateur, maar je hebt geen toegang?

  • Log in, of maak een account aan als je dat nog niet eerder hebt gedaan op worldsupporter.org.
  • Bij het aanmaken van je account kan je direct aangeven dat je JoHo WorldSupporter donateur bent (met danwel zonder 'full online access', of je past dit later aan op de user page van je account
  • Kom je er niet uit, neem dan even contact op! Of check de veel gestelde vragen

Kom je er niet helemaal uit of heb je problemen met inloggen?

  • Lees de antwoorden op de meest gestelde vragen.
  • Of laat je helpen door één van de JoHo medewerkers door het online contactformulier in te vullen

-----------------------------------------------


JoHo WorldSupporter donateur worden

JoHo membership zonder extra services (donateurschap) = €5 per kalenderjaar

  • Voor steun aan de JoHo WorldSupporter en Smokey projecten en een bijdrage aan alle activiteiten op het gebied van internationale samenwerking en talentontwikkeling
  • Voor gebruik van de basisfuncties van JoHo WorldSupporter.org
  • Voor het gebruik van de kortingen en voordelen bij partners
  • Voor gebruik van de voordelen bij verzekeringen en reisverzekeringen zonder assurantiebelasting

JoHo membership met extra services (abonnee services) = €10 per kalenderjaar

€10 per kalenderjaar: Online toegang Only

  • Voor volledige online toegang en gebruik van alle online boeksamenvattingen en studietools op WorldSupporter.org en JoHo.org
  • voor online toegang tot de tools en services voor werk in het buitenland, lange reizen, vrijwilligerswerk, stages en studie in het buitenland
  • voor online toegang tot de tools en services voor emigratie of lang verblijf in het buitenland
  • voor online toegang tot de tools en services voor competentieverbetering en kwaliteitenonderzoek
  • Voor extra steun aan JoHo, WorldSupporter en Smokey projecten

Steun JoHo en steun jezelf door JoHo WorldSupporter donateur te worden

Direct Donateur Worden

Join World Supporter
Join World Supporter
Log in or create your free account

Why create an account?

  • Your WorldSupporter account gives you access to all functionalities of the platform
  • Once you are logged in, you can:
    • Save pages to your favorites
    • Give feedback or share contributions
    • participate in discussions
    • share your own contributions through the 7 WorldSupporter tools
Follow the author: Psychology Supporter
Promotions
special isis de wereld in

Waag jij binnenkort de sprong naar het buitenland? Verzeker jezelf van een goede ervaring met de JoHo Special ISIS verzekering

verzekering studeren in het buitenland

Ga jij binnenkort studeren in het buitenland?
Regel je zorg- en reisverzekering via JoHo!

Access level of this page
  • Public
  • WorldSupporters only
  • JoHo members
  • Private
Statistics
[totalcount]
Comments, Compliments & Kudos

Add new contribution

CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Image CAPTCHA
Enter the characters shown in the image.
WorldSupporter Resources
Developmental Psychopathology - UL - Notes (EN) - 2016/2017

Developmental Psychopathology - UL - Notes (EN) - 2016/2017


These notes are based on the course Developmental Psychopathology in 2016/2017.

Lecture: Introduction

Determining abnormality

We use developmental norms to make decisions about behavior. Developmental norms are norms about the normal development of for example, blather control. Behavioral indicators of disorder are developmental delay, developmental regression or deterioration, extremely high of low frequency of behavior, extremely high of low intensity of behavior, behavioral difficulty persisting over time, behavior inappropriate to the situation, abrupt changes in behavior, several problem behaviors and behavior qualitatively different from normal. This is summed-up in table 1.1 in abnormal child and adolescent psychology (Wicks-Nelson & Isreal, 8th edition, 2013, page 3).

We are influenced by cultural norms, gender norms and situational norms. Situational norms are used in situations where for example a child is running. This is appropriate when de child is outside and playing, but inside it’s less appropriate behavior. The role of adults is also important. Adults decide whether something is seen as normal or not. The definition of abnormality is ever changing and it’s important when deciding about someone’s behavior, to look at if it’s harming the person of interfering with their lives.

Classification

Classification can be done by using the empirical approach or the clinical approach. Generally, problem behavior exists when there is a cluster of symptoms, also called a syndrome. The symptoms must be persistent, causing stress and interfere with functioning.

The clinical approach is clinically derived, categorical, qualitative, used a lot and the concepts of disorders keep changing. Characteristics of a disorder are emphasized. Critique on this approach is that behavior is over diagnosed, is has too little validity, no clear rules for making decisions and it views abstract disorders as concrete ones. There’s also no emphasis on the context of situations and on developmental differences.

The empirical approach is based on statistics, clusters of problem behaviors, also known as syndromes, broad and narrowband and dimensional, so also quantitative. Data of normative samples are used in the empirical approach of classification.

Models

Different models are used to look at behavior, like the bio-psycho-social model and the ongoing interplay-individual model. The first one is a search for factors and processes and the second one looks at temperament and context and can be seen as an ecological model. In the bio-psycho-social model, influences are genetics and problems around birth, learning experiences and cognitive processes, family, peers and society and social context.

Risk and protective factors

Risk factors have a large non-specific negative effect. They come in small or bigger groups and can pile up. The onset and maintenance of these factors are important to look at, as well as processes or mechanisms. Protective factors together with vigilance, can prevent a negative outcome.

Moderators and mediators

Factors can be moderators of mediators. Moderators can enhance or weaken an outcome and can also change the course of this outcome. This is not a causal effect, because the moderator is not in the equation, but next to it. Like this: A  outcome, while the moderator has an effect on the arrow. Mediators are in the equation and have a direct influence on the outcome, like this: A  B  outcome. A mediator can lead to an outcome or explain it.

Direct and indirect

If there are many factors between A and the outcome, these are called indirect influences. These can also be distal factors, if you’re not looking at an equation but at a circle and circles of influences in that circle, with a child as the center of that circle. Direct of proximal influences are close to the child in the circle model and are alone in an equation.

Equifinaty and multifinaty

Equifinaty means that multiple factors can cause the same outcome. Multifinaty is the opposite, one factor has many different outcomes.

Heterotypic and homotypic continuity

Continuity is about whether a person has of doesn’t have a disorder, put in a timeline. Heterotypic continuity means that a person has a disorder for a while and then the symptoms fade or the disorder expresses itself differently. Homotypic continuity means that a person has a disorder for a while and it stays the same in frequency and expresses itself in the same way.

Lecture: Anxiety disorders

Anxiety

The prevalence of anxiety disorders is about 6-20% in the population and in panic disorders, OCD and PTSD the prevalence is about 12-20% in children.

Worry

First it’s important to understand that there’s a difference between fear (phobia) and anxiety, which can become a disorder. Worry can be a part of the cognitive component of anxiety. In children, there’s a correlation between fear, worry and thinking. This is not the case in adults. Worry and rumination have in common that, in both cases a person thinks repetitively in a negative way. On the other hand, worry is about potential negative outcomes, associated with anxiety and difficult to control. Rumination is about symptoms, causes and outcomes, mostly associated with depression and passive response to distress. These are some differences.

The tripartite model

The tripartite model of fear and anxiety is a complex pattern of three types of reactions to a perceived threat. One of these types is an overt behavioral response, like freezing, running away, closing eyes, trembling voice, fidgeting, crying, screaming, tantrum and seeking reassurance. The second type of response is a physiological one, like sweating, change in heartrate, nausea, dizziness and multiple trips to the bathroom. The last type of reactions is a cognitive response, like worry, expecting the worst, picturing bodily harm, difficulty concentrating, confusion, mind going blank, fear of losing control, thoughts of being scared and self-deprecatory thoughts.

Normal fears

For babies, it’s normal to be afraid of loud noises and unfamiliar people and objects. For toddlers it’s normal to be afraid of people leaving them and animals. For pre-scholars it’s normal to be afraid in the dark and to be afraid of war and monsters. These are more abstract subjects of fear. For children who are old enough to go to school, it’s normal to be afraid of embarrassment, critique and physical injuries. In adolescents is normal to be afraid of social evaluations and death.

Fears generally decrease with age and it changes the subjective experience of the concept of normality. Next to this general decrease, there is an age specific increase in fear. Culture, direct environment and gender also have an influence on fear and anxiety. There is a normative increase in social-related fears, but this doesn’t mean that a person with an increase in social-related fears has an anxiety disorder.

Females show more fear than men. They have a larger amount of subjects which fear them and the intensity of the fear in women is higher. An explanation might be that the expectations of women are different than those of men. The stereotypic picture we have of women is that they can be afraid, but we expect men to be heroes. This can influence the way we perceive men and women, but it can also influence the way men and women handle fear. These gender role expectations depend on culture. Another explanation is, that women might express their fear more than men, so it gets reported more.

Problematic anxiety can be categorized with the empirical approach of classification and the clinical approach, as explained in the first lecture.

Specific phobia

A specific phobia is fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation. In DSM-IV, the person had to recognize that the fear is excessive or unreasonable, but this was not required of children. The duration is at least 6 months for young people under 18 years. Young children may not understand the concept of avoidance and so extra information is required from parents, teachers, etcetera.

Social anxiety disorder

Social anxiety disorder is fear of anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to judgement. In children, the anxiety can occur with peers and not just during interactions with adults. The individual fears being negatively evaluated and is afraid of embarrassment. Situations with strangers are especially scary. In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, clinging, shrinking or failing to speak. If a medical condition is present, the fear, anxiety or avoidance is clearly unrelated or is excessive.

Selective mutism

People with selective mutism fail to speak in specific social situations in which there is an expectation of speaking, despite speaking in other situations and this is consistent. The disturbance interferes with functioning and it has to last for at least one month, not limited to the first month of school. The failure to speak is not associated with a lack of knowledge or comfort with the language. The disturbance is not better explained by a communication disorder and does not occur exclusively during autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.

Separation anxiety disorder

This anxiety disorder only occurs in children. These children are extremely afraid of being left alone and their caretakers leaving them or losing an important person. Nightmares and physical symptoms can occur, like stomach aches.

Generalized anxiety disorder

An individual with generalized anxiety disorder, experiences excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than not. The anxiety and worry are associated with 3 or more symptoms, but only one symptom is required in children. A person with GAD experiences restlessness, being on edge, being easily fatigued, difficulty concentrating, mind going blank, irritability, muscle tension and sleep disturbance.

Agoraphobia

This fear of anxiety is present in two or more of the following situations: using public transport, boing in open spaces, being in enclosed places, standing in line or being in a crowd and being outside the home alone. People with agoraphobia fear of avoid these situations because of thoughts that escape might be difficult or help unavailable in the event of panic-like symptoms. These situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety and are avoided, require company or endured with intense fear or anxiety. This fear is out of proportion, typically last 6 months or more and causes clinically significant distress and/or impairment. If medical condition is present, the fear is clearly unrelated or excessive. The fear is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder.

General characteristics of anxiety

For specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, goes that the object or situation that causes fear or anxiety almost always provokes this and is avoided or endured with intense fear of anxiety. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual threat posed. The fear, anxiety of avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more, causes clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning and is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder. In children and adolescents with separation anxiety disorder, the symptoms have to last at least 4 weeks. The disturbance is also not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another medical condition.

Because generalized anxiety disorder doesn’t have a specific object or situation that causes fear or anxiety, some of these things don’t apply, but the symptoms have to last for at least 6 months, in different situations, the anxiety, worry or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment and the disturbance is not better explained by another metal disorder.

Related disorders

Some related disorders to anxiety, are reactions to traumatic events, like posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder, reactive attachment disorder, disinhibited social engagement disorder and adjustment disorders. For PTSD there are parallel criteria for children of age 6 or younger, but fewer symptoms are required to get the diagnoses. Obsessive compulsive disorders are also related to anxiety.

Obsessive compulsive disorder

An individual with OCD has obsessions and compulsions. By completing some ritual or compulsion, this person thinks that a problem that’s related to the obsession is being solved. OCD might be a normal development being overreacted, but it could also be qualitatively different from the normal development.

Lecture: Mood disorders

Anxiety

Causes of an anxiety disorder

Biological influences an have cause an anxiety disorder. This can be looked at with different kinds of studies, like twins, brain images, temperament, family aggregation and co-occurring disorders. Shy children are more likely to develop an anxiety disorder in their adulthood.

Psychological influences are direct experience, modeling, prompts and reward, transmission from information and parenting style.

Characterisics of an anxiety disorder

Anxiety is characterized by the feeling of personal thread and avoidant behavior. When parents influenced the children in a situation in which they have already showed avoidant behavior, they show even more avoidant behavior. This is called the Family Enhacement of Avoidant behavioR of FEAR effect. The long term impact of anxiety disorders are school drop-out and other psychopathologies in childhood and/ or adulthood. The short term effects are that adults with an anxiety disorder, still get diagnosed with the same disorder a few months later.

Studying the course of a disorder, helps to improve the classification of this disorder. Comorbidity in people with anxiety are evident in longitudinal data and in this same data, homotypic continuity is found. There’s some support for the fact that problems of different types of fear may be separate phenomenon.

Development of psychopathology perspective, or DPP: if a child fulfils the criteria for adults for a diagnoses of anxiety disorder, does this mean that the child actually has an anxiety disorder?

Depression

There are two types of mood disorders: depression and bipolar disorders. Depression can be unipolar, meaning it just goes one way, so a person just feels depressed and nothing else. It can also be bipolar, meaning the depression goes two ways, so a person feels depressed some times and experiences mania the rest of the time. There are differences between depressive mood, depressive disorder, when someone actually gets the diagnoses and depressive syndrome, which is a cluster of depressive symptoms.

Categories of depression

Depression can be divided up into different categories. Major depression means a person experiences a depressive mood, less interest in things (anhedonia), change in eating and appetite, changes in sleeping pattern, psychomotor retardation, fatigue, less concentration, thoughts of death and feelings of worthlessness and/or guilt.

Persistent depressive disorder means a person is suffering from all of the symptoms mentioned above and experiences these for at least two years with more depression than mania. This is also called dysthymia.

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder means that a person experiences inappropriate to the situation temper tantrums, which are also inappropriate to the level of development of that person. There have to be at least five outbursts a week and the person is always angry of irritated in three or more settings.

When a person is diagnosed with double depression, it means that that person fits the criteria for both major depression as persistent depressive disorder.

Other disorder related to depression are premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PDD), substance/medication-induced depressive disorder, depressive disorder due to another medical condition, other specified depressive disorders (OSDD) and unspecified depressive disorder (UDD). PDD was considered a disorder, because it responded to treatment, but this is not a very good reason to call something a disorder. OSDD means that a person has for of the five symptoms needed to get the diagnoses depression. UDD means that a person has some kind of depression, but it’s not quite clear which one.

Bipolar and related disorders

People who experience a manic episode experience grandiosity, less need of sleep, talkativeness, racing thoughts, distractibility, more goal-directed activity of psychomotor irritation, which isn’t goal-directed activity, an increase in activities which are likely to have a negative outcome. Mania is rare in pre-pubescent children. They do experience positive mood (elation), grandiosity, less need of sleep, racing thoughts and hyper sexuality. Bipolar disorders have a high comorbidity rate with ADHD.

Causes of bipolar and related disorders

Causes of bipolar and related disorders are socio-psychological influences, biological influences and depression in parents. Behavioral theories include different aspects like less social skills, being able to do less fun things, less positive reinforcement and this acts as a downward spiral. These theories try to turn this downward spiral up, with pleasant events scheduling.

Cognitive aspect of bipolar and related disorders

The cognitive aspect of an bipolar and related disorders focuses on automatic thoughts or cognitive products, interpreting or cognitive operations of processes and schemas of core thoughts, also known as cognitive structures. When a person starts to predict negative things, or personalizes things, uses selective attention and uses minimization, it will make a person anxious. Minimization means that a person interprets something good in a very minimalistic way. This means a person thinks: my soccer team won, but I probably had nothing to do with it. Also, my soccer team lost and it’s completely my fault. These are called cognitive errors.

Beck’s theory: negative cognitive triad and cognitive errors can cause a person to develop a way of thinking, consistent with the way people with a bipolar or related disorder think.

Hopelessness theory: cognitive vulnerability paired with stress, internal, stable and global attribution will make a person develop a way of thinking, consistent with the way people with a bipolar or related disorder think. The example with the soccer team applies here as well. A person might think: my soccer team lost, it’s my fault (internal), it’s always my fault whenRead more

Developmental Psychopathology: Samenvattingen, uittreksels, aantekeningen en oefenvragen - UL