Acculturation refers to the process of incorporating the beliefs and customs of a new culture. Socialization refers to the ways in which society conveys to the individual its norms or expectations for their behaviour.

Intersectionality refers to an approach that simultaneously considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, differences and disadvantage. It states that

Masculinity is typically linked to lesbianism and femininity is linked to male-homosexuality in some contexts but not in all. There are ten major difficulties in the treatment of gender in sex research:

1. Gender versus sex
   It is not clear whether there is a difference between gender and sex in sex research. They are often used

The emphasis on distress in the diagnosis of gender dysphoria is problematic in two ways:

1. This may reduce access to treatment and legal recognition for transpeople who do not experience chronic or intermittent gender dysphoria.
2. This may represent the lives of transpeople.

The true transsexual model referred to a person who required physical

The prevalence of gender dysphoria is estimated by looking at health care services. However, individuals may be hesitant to seek medical care for gender dysphoria due to stigmatization. Furthermore, healthcare makes use of a dichotomous view of gender while people may be ambivalent about gender and do not desire treatment. This means that the prevalence of adult gender

There were several changes from the DSM-4 to DSM-5 with regards to gender identity disorder:

1. Change the name of gender identity disorder (GID) to gender dysphoria
   This is done because it is less stigmatizing and highlights a conceptual change in the diagnosis.
2. Decouple the diagnosis of GID from the sexual dysfunctions and place it

In the earliest diagnostic manuals, only inhibited sexual excitement was used to denote psychosexual disorders. However, this was indicated by a lack of a physiological response. In later diagnostic manuals, the FSAD diagnosis was added. However, the subjective arousal subtype was removed from this diagnosis in the DSM-4. This was done to make sure that the male-female similarity

The triggering of desire from competent sexual stimuli sometimes only occurs when sexual activity has begun for women. It is important to take the following things into account when describing a diagnosis:

• What is not within normal experience?
• What symptoms can be grouped into a disorder?
• What is the difference between a problematic environment

There are gender differences in sexual response and there is widespread recognition for conceptualizing women’s sexual problems differently from those of men. In the FSIAD diagnosis, there is no differentiation between sexual desire and sexual arousal as there is no evidence that these are two different things in women. Many women who were diagnosed with HSDD or FSAD

One perspective regarding sexual desire and arousal states that any psychological changes correspond to changes in the brain. The sex hormones are released into the blood by glands and travel to the brain. Here, they sensitize particular regions. This makes these regions more responsive to sexual stimuli and thoughts. This implies that a biological event (e.g. loss of

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was introduced to have a single cause (i.e. traumatic event). This is unique as there is a clear, environmental cause rather than a complex interplay between environmental and genetic factors, such as in other disorders. However, not everyone who experiences trauma develops PTSD. This leads to three main criticisms towards PTSD:

1. PTSD

Attachment provides the framework for how an individual perceives and interacts with the world. There is a heightened reliance on attachment relationships for adolescents when transitioning to adulthood. Bartholomew’s theory of attachment states that attachment should be explained in terms of how individuals perceive themselves and others in relationships. There are four attachment styles in adolescents and adults:

There was no clear recognition of the chronic, long-term post-traumatic stress reactions before the diagnosis of PTSD. The amygdala (1), hippocampus (2) and HPA axis (3) are imperative in the development and maintenance of PTSD. The hippocampus and amygdala are involved in the registration of dangerous events and the formation of memories about this.

Memories formed under

Both Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s attachment theory are used to conceptualize close interpersonal relationships. This theory states that people have core systems (i.e. attachments) and this is modifiable by experience.

Bowlby’s attachment theory states that humans have an innate attachment behavioural system. This motivates them to seek proximity to significant others (i.e. attachment figures). The main goal

There is no difference between people with a high and a low self-esteem with regards to the desire for connection. However, compared to people with a high self-esteem, people with a low self-esteem have several characteristics.

• They feel lonelier.
• They have less satisfying and stable relationships.
• They are more shy.
• They are more

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an effective treatment for alleviating PTSD symptoms. In EMDR, the patient recalls traumatic memories while simultaneously making horizontal eye movements. There are three hypotheses as to why and how EMDR works:

1. EMDR works by recalling aversive memories and eye movements are not necessary
   This states that prolonged exposure

Trauma-focused interventions refer to interventions that directly address memories of the traumatic event or thoughts and feelings related to the traumatic event (e.g. EMDR). Non-trauma focused interventions refer to interventions that do not directly address memories of the traumatic event or thoughts and feelings related to the traumatic event (e.g. stress inoculation training).

A combination of