SexologyChapter 2Theoretical perspectives on sexuality Sociobiology Sociobiology: the application of evolutionary biology to understanding the social behaviour of animals, including humans.Sociobiologists try to understand why certain patterns of sexual behaviour have evolved in humans.The sociobiologists argues that many of the characteristics we evaluate in judging attractiveness are indicative of the health and vigour of the individual.These in turn are probably related to the person’s reproductive potential.Thus, perhaps our concern with physical attractiveness is a product of evolution and natural selection.Attractiveness is an indicator of health and is more important in mate selection in societies where more people are unhealthy.From this viewpoint, hanging out, playing sports, getting engaged and similar customs are much like the courtship rituals of other species.This courtship is an opportunity for each member of the prospective couple to assess each other’s fitness.An offspring’s changes of survival are greatly increased if the parents bond emotionally and if the parents have propensity for attachment.An emotional bond may also lead to more frequent sexual interaction. The pleasurable consequences of sex in turn will reinforce the bond.Parental investment: the behaviour and resources invested in offspring to achieve the survival and reproductive success of their genetic offspring.Many criticisms of sociobiology have been madeThe biological determinismIt rests on an outmoded version of the evolutionary model that modern biologists consider naiveSociobiologist assume that the...

SexologyChapter 4Sexual anatomy The female sexual organs can be classified into two categoriesExternal organsInternal organsExternal organs The external genitals of females consist ofThe clitorisThe mons pubisThe inner lipsThe outer lipsThe vaginal openingVulva: the collective term of the external genitals of the female.The appearance of the vulva varies greatly from one women to another.The clitoris Clitoris: a highly sensitive sexual organ in the female: the glans is in front of the vaginal entrance, and the rest of the clitoris extends deeper into the body.It consists ofGlansA knob of tissue situated externally in frond of the vaginal opening and the urethral openingA shaft consisting of two corpora cavernosaExtends perhaps an inch into the bodyTwo cruraLonger spongy bodies that lie deep in the body and run from the tip of the clitoris to either side of the vagina, under the major lips.Female sexual organs and make sexual organs develop from similar tissue before birth.The female’s clitoris is homologous to the male’s penis, both develop from the same embryonic tissue.The clitoris has a structure similar to that of the penis in that both have corpora cavernosa.The clitoris varies in size from one women to the next.The clitoris is erectile.Its internal structure contains corpora cavernosa that fill with blood, as the similar structures in the penis do.The clitoris has a rich supply of nerve endings, making it very sensitive to stroking.It is the only part of the sexual anatomy with no known reproductive function.The Mons Mons pubis: the fatty pad of tissue under the public hair.The labia Outer lips...

SexologyChapter 7Contraception and abortionBoth babies and mothers are healthier if pregnancies are spaced three to five years apart. Hormonal methods of contraception are highly effective and come in a number of formsThe pillThe patchThe vaginal ringInjectionsThe combination pill Combination birth control pills: birth control pills that contain a combination of estrogen and pregestin (progesterone), both at higher than natural levels.A women takes the pill for 21 days, and then no pill or a placebo for 7 days, after which she repeats the cycle.Variations have been introduced.How it works The pill works mainly by preventing ovulation.When a women starts taking the birth control pills, estrogen levels are high. This high level of estrogen inhibits FSH production, and the message to ovulate never sends out.The high level of progesterone inhibits LH production, further preventing ovulation.The progestin provides additional backup effectsIt keeps the cervical mucus very thickMaking it difficult for the sperm to get throughIt changes the lining of the uterus in such a way that even if a fertilized egg were to arrive,implantation would be unlikelyWhen the estrogen and progestin are withdrawn, the lining of the uterus disintegrates, and withdrawal bleeding or menstruation occurs.The flow is typically reduced because the progestin has inhibited development of endometrium.Effectiveness Failure rate: the pregnancy rate occurring using a particular method; the...

SexologyChapter 9Sexuality and the life cycle: childhood and adolescenceLifespan development: development from birth through old age. Scientific data available on the sexual behaviour of children and adolescentsKinsey reportNHSLSResponses on surveys may be problematicThe data on childhood sexual behaviour may be subject to errors that result from adults being asked to recall things that happened a very long time agoAn alternative would be to interview children about their sexual behaviour or even to observe their sexual behaviourFew researchers have done thisMany studies of adolescent sexual behaviour have been done The studies of child and adolescent sexual behaviour have mostly involved surveys, which have used either questionnaires or interviews.Virtually no researchers have made systematic, direct observations of children’s sexual behaviour, although some have asked parents to report on their children’s sexual behaviour. Sigmund Freud first expressed the notion that children – in fact, even infants – have sexual urges and engage in sexual behaviour.The capacity of the human body to show a sexual response is present from birth. Reflex erections occur in male fetus for several month before birth and vaginal lubrication has been found in baby girls in the 24 hours after birth. The first intimate relationship that most children experience is with their mother and their...

SexologyChapter 11Attraction, love, and communication The girl next door Our opportunities to meet people are limited by geography and time.We tend to be more attracted to people with whom we have had contact several times than we are to people with whom we have had little contact.Mere-exposure effect: the tendency to like a person more if we have been exposed to him or her repeatedly.Birds of a feather We like people who are similar to us.We are attracted to people who are approximately the same was we are in age, race or ethnicity, and economic and social status.Homophily: the tendency to have contact with people who are equal in social status.We are attracted to people whose attitudes and opinions are similar to ours.Reasons to be attracted to a person similarWe get positive reinforcement from that person agreeing with us.Similarity in attitudes is important, in personality is notSimilarity on attachment styles is associated with indicators of marital satisfactionSimilarity in attitudes is notPhysical attractiveness Individuals prefer partners who are more physically attractive.This effect depends on gender to some extent.Physical attractiveness is more important to males evaluating females than it is to females evaluating males.Our perception of attractiveness or beauty of another person is influenced by our evaluation of their intelligence, liking, respect, and our own objective attractiveness.This phenomenon is somewhat modified by our own feelings of personal worth.The interpersonal marketplace Whom we are attracted to and pair off with depends a lot on how much we think we have to offer and how much we think we can...

SexologyChapter 13Sexual orientation: Gay, Straight, or Bi?Sexual orientation: a person’s erotic and emotional orientation toward members of his or own gender or members of the other gender.Homosexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward members of the same genderHeterosexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward members of the other gender.Bisexual: a person whose sexual orientation is toward both men and women.Queer:a self-label used by some LGBs, as well as by some heterosexuals who prefer unusual sexual practices. Your sexual orientation has implications for the attitudes people have toward you.Heteronormativity: the belief that heterosexuality is the norm.Attitudes Many Americans disapprove of homosexuality.The gay liberation movement has a slow effect on changing the negative attitudes.Homophobia: a strong, irrational fear of homosexuals; negative attitudes and reactions to homosexuals.Antigay prejudice: negative attitudes and behaviours toward gays and lesbians.Heterosexism: the belief that everyone is heterosexual and that heterosexuality is the norm.Some prejudice is subtle.The most extreme expressions of anti gay prejudice occur in hate crimes against LGBs.Hate crimes against and harassment of sexual minority individuals are common whether physical, emotional, or sexual.These incidents exact a psychological toll.In previous decades there were almost no portrayals of...

SexologyChapter 15Sexual coercion Rape: non-consenting oral, anal, or vaginal penetration obtained by force, by threat of force, or when the victim is incapable of giving consent.Most statistics find that a woman’s lifetime risk of being raped is between 18 and 25 percent.The impact of rape Women who experience rape are more likely to show several types of psychological distressAnxietyDepressionSuicide ideation and attemptsPosttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)Long-term psychological distress suffered by someone who has experienced a trauma.People who have experienced a terrifying event form a memory schema that involves information about the situation and their responses to it.Because the schema is large, many cues can trigger it and thereby evoke the feelings of terror that occurred at the time.The schema is probably activated at some level all the time.The consequences can be far reaching and long lasting.Most women who experience a sexual assault have negative psychological reactions immediately afterwards.Many show significant recovery within a year.A number of factors are associated with worse psychological outcomesWhether the woman has experienced sexual violence previouslyThe severity of the violenceReactions of others when the woman discloses the assaultPsychotherapeutic treatments for PTSD are available and they are successful in treating rape survivors.Some women experience self-blame.Self-blame is linked to worse long-term psychological outcomes.Damage to women’s physical health that may result from rapePhysical injuriesVaginal painWomen who have been forced to have oral sex may suffer irritation or damage to the throatWomen who were...

SexologyChapter 17Sexual disorders and sex therapySexual disorders cause a great deal of psychological distress to the individuals troubled by them and to their partners.Sexual disorder: a problem with sexual response that causes a person mental distress.This is a continuum.Lifelong sexual disorder: a sexual disorder that has been present ever since the person began sexual functioning.Acquired sexual disorder: a sexual disorder that develops after a period of normal functioning Desire disorders Sexual desire: an interest in sexual activity, leading the individual to seek out sexual activity or to be pleasurably receptive to it.Hypoactive sexual desire (HSD): a sexual disorder in which there is a lack of interest in sexual activity.Found in both men and women.Too little sexual desire is the most common sexual issue reported by women.But, there are also many circumstances when it is normal for a person’s desire to be inhibited.The problem is not the individual’s absolute level of sexual desire but a discrepancy between the partners’ levels.Discrepancy of sexual desire: a sexual disorder in which the partners have considerably different levels of sexual desire.Female sexual interest/arousal disorder: a diagnosis in the DSM-V that encompasses lack of interest in sexual activity and absent or reduced arousal during sexual interactions.The diagnosis is limited to women.Arousal disorders Female sexual arousal disorder Female sexual arousal disorder: a sexual disorder in which there is a lack of response to sexual stimulation, including lack of...

SexologyChapter 19Ethics, religion, and sexuality Ethics: a system of moral principles; a ways of determining right and wrong.Religion is a source of values, attitudes, and ethics.For believers, religion sets forth an ethical code and provides sanctions that motivate them to obey the rules.When a particular religion is practices by many people in a society, it helps create a culture, which then influences even those who do not accept the religion.Hedonism: a moral system based on maximizing pleasure and avoiding pain.Asceticism: an approach to life emphasizing discipline and impulse control.Legalism: ethics based on the assumption that there are rules for human conduct and that morality consists of knowing the rules and obeying them.Situationism: ethics based on the assumption that there are no absolute rules, or at least very few, and that each situation must be judged individually. Classical Greek philosophy While nothing in Greek culture rejected sex as evil, the great philosophers did develop a kind of asceticism.They thought that virtue resulted from wisdom.To achieve wisdom and cultivate virtue, violent passions must be avoided, and these might well include sex.Plate believed that love led toward immortality and was therefore a good thing.But this kind of love was mainly intellectual and more like friendship than sexuality.Pederasty: sex between an older man and a younger man, or a boy.Approved...