1. Strategies for coping with career indecision

What are the objectives of this study?

Career decisions are on of the most important and stressful decisions in life. The process can cause cognitive, emotional as well as personal-related difficulties. Coping is explained as behavioural or cognitive efforts to manage certain situations that are perceived stressful. Coping strategies can be (a) problem focused or approach coping (b) emotion focused coping, (c) avoidant coping or (d) support seeking. The objective of this study is to develop and test a theoretical model named strategies for coping with career indecision (SCCI). The model exists from 14 categories representing three main clusters for coping: productive coping, support-seeking and non-productive coping. The concepts are derived from other coping theories. They are adapted in the context of coping with decisions about career.

What methods were used in the study?

To test the model, a SCCI questionnaire was used. It was based on a combination of Skinner's (2003) model about coping with stress. Forty specific categories were used, twelve of these categories were derived from Skinner's model. The model included three clusters:

1. Productive coping
2. Support-seeking
3. Non-productive coping

Support seeking was divided in instrumental help seeking, emotional help-seeking and delegation. Productive coping was split into instrumental information seeking, emotional information seeking, problem solving, flexibility, accommodation and self-regulation. Non-productive coping is divided into escape, helplessness, isolation, submission and opposition.

It was developed using data from 10 samples. The first study reported that the development of SCCI and the psychometric properties. An additional sample of young Israelis deciding about their career was used. In study 2a, a confirmatory factor analysis was done. In study 2b, concurrent validity was tested.

What were the results?

The researchers found that both samples confirmed hypothesized distinction between three coping clusters. They used Hebrew and English versions of the SCCI that both confirmed the proposed model. Delegation and emotional help-seeking were also associated with non-productive coping. Also, instrumental help-seeking was associated with productive coping support-seeking. Support-seeking was related to both productive and non-productive coping.

They also found cultural differences. The Israeli sample showed higher scores on helplessness, delegation and submission. The English sample scored higher on emotional information seeking, accommodation, isolation and flexibility. These differences could be explained by social and cultural background.

What are implications for further research?

The implications for future research and career counselling are discussed. Even though there seems to be consensus that coping refers to adaptively changing cognitive as well as behavioural actions to manage stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). However, these changes were not investigated in the current research. This is because the researchers think that cross-sectional methods can only provide a snapshot of the developmental process, which is dynamic. In future research a longitudinal design should be used to assess coping styles that are used for career decisions.

What are implications for counselling?

Counsellors should not only understand the nature of indecision, but also assess the coping strategies used by the individual. Is that person dealing effectively with its indecisiveness? The SCCI could help counsellors with getting an initial diagnosis of how people handle challenges of career decision making. This makes it easier for counsellors to give recommendations on how to handle their decision problems. Additionally, counsellors should provide techniques to reduce non-productive coping and promote productive coping.

Summary: Strategies for coping with career indecision

• Coping strategies can be (a) problem focused or approach coping (b) emotion focused coping, (c) avoidant coping or (d) support seeking. The objective of this study is to develop and test a theoretical model named strategies for coping with career indecision (SCCI).
• The researchers found that both samples confirmed hypothesized distinction between three coping clusters. They used Hebrew and English versions of the SCCI that both confirmed the proposed model. Delegation and emotional help-seeking were also associated with non-productive coping. Also, instrumental help-seeking was associated with productive coping support-seeking. Support-seeking was related to both productive and non-productive coping.

Study note: Strategies for coping with career indecision

1. The researchers used three types of coping to describe how people deal with career indecision. Make sure that you are aware of these coping strategies and how they influence (productive vs non-productive) the way people deal with career indecision.
2. The researchers used two samples: one from America and one from Israel and they found some cultural differences. Could you think of why these cultural differences arise?

2. Job search and voluntary turnover in a boundaryless world: a control theory perspective

What are the objectives of the study?

The psychology of voluntarily leaving an organization has been of psychologists' interest for a while. March and Simon (1958) tried to identify the psychological processes involved in voluntary turnover. Low job satisfaction is a primary indicator of voluntary departure. Other promotional aspects include other job opportunities and a strong economy. These factors of desirability and ease of movement are incorporated in models trying to explain organizational departure. However, the predictive power of these models remains low. Lee and Mitchell (1994) discovered that instead of low job satisfaction, a series of shocks is responsible for voluntary turnover. For example, family related pressure or responsibility. The ease of movement has gotten increased attention lately, especially how it developed over time.

Steel (2002) developed a cybernetic model that handles job search as a cyclical and self-regulatory process. Information in this case provides new opportunities for dynamic learning. These can enable an individual to influence and adapt to a changing labour market by changing conceptions about employability over time.

In this study, a cybernetic model of voluntary turnover and job search, based on the need to stay employable in a volatile economy is proposed. In the model, the process by which people engage in cycles of job search activities that could enlarge the likelihood of voluntary turnover and increase opportunities for development of additional career skills. The implications of this model for future research are discussed.

What is the role of desirability and ease of movement in the voluntary turnover literature?

Job satisfaction plays an important role in all literature of voluntary turnover. A negative association exists between voluntary turnover and job satisfaction. Ease of movement has been incorporated into turnover models by employment rates, general job availability, perceived alternatives and movement capital. The interplay between desirability -and ease of movement can take two forms:

1. The linear relationship between job affect and voluntary turnover where dissatisfaction leads to thougts about quitting and evaluation of other options (Mobley, 1977).
2. The relationship between voluntary turnover and job satisfaction is stronger when the rate of unemployment is low. This suggest that human capital together with employability affect how job dissatisfaction influences voluntary turnover.

What is the role of employability in a boundaryless world?

Organizations are pressured to stay lean due to globalization and technical advancements. Employers start looking externally for new capabilities instead of maintaining long-term relations with employees. Boundaryless careers are different from organisational careers in their independence from traditional organizational agreements. The need to remain employable is highly relevant because of economic uncertainty. Employability depends on the capacity to leverage personal resources. Individuals are now agents of their own career destinies.

What model is used for job search and voluntary turnover?

Even though individuals that quit their job have different destinations, this model is focused on people who immediately go to another organization after voluntary turnover. The model is based upon cybernetic systems where environmental feedback is compared to a reference standard. Also, corrective or adaptive behaviours are enacted to reduce individual differences. Therefore, job search consists of two elements:

• Search activities
• Comparison processes

Job search activities used for exploration and actively seeking for alternative employment are handled the same because they can both enable someone to gauge their employability in the market. Individuals that perceive a negative discrepancy between current and desired employability try to reduce discrepancy trough adaptive actions. These are called career strategy behaviours. The empowerment of these strategies can lead to enhanced competencies and skills and therefore, employee voluntary turnover.

What is the effect of job search on career strategies and career competencies?

The researchers suggest that enactment of career related behavioural strategies is related to with the development of know-how, know-why and know-whom skills. Furthermore, it is expected that some of the career strategies enhance human capital. Strategies related to enhancement of human capital also provide career related benefits. They also propose that career strategies related to networking lead to the development of social capital. Lastly, they suggest that people that can enhance their knowing-why competencies through undertaking career strategy behaviours. All career strategies propose an opportunity for the betterment of self-awareness, critical to knowing-why competencies.

What are the effects of career competencies on employability?

The individual qualities; talent and expertise determine the ease of movement and the availability of jobs. Human capital causes people to see the labour market and enlarge to competition of services of an individual to external employers. The increase of teachable knowledge, skills (knowing-how competencies) increases the value of an employee. Making new friends and with that learning knowing-whom skills in organizations could lead to possible job opportunities. Also, the strength of social network can enhance career growth options and keep the employee open-minded to new opportunities for his career.

What is the effect of employability on psychological mobility?

The authors propose that an increase of employability can result in finding alternative career paths. This finding is consistent with the cybernetic perspective: people enact in adaptational strategies for their career. Strategic behaviours can be used to enhance current competencies in career and to promote a high employability. Psychological mobility is enlarged by this, especially when people are not highly embedded in the job they currently have. On the other hand, when people receive a higher level of employability that they desire, the discrepancy between current and desired employability may be overlooked. This is a result of the comparison process caused by their activities in job search. Their current level of employability is the same as their desired level of employability, so there is no need to keep using adaptive career strategy behaviours.

What is the effect of psychological mobility on job search?

People are likely to enhance job search activities if they believe that this effort will get them rewarding outcomes (Vroom, 1964). On the other hand, people with a strong view of psychological mobility are motivated to engage in
more high-level job search to serve them information necessary to make accurate comparisons between desired and current employability. The refinement of comparisons between desired and current employability over time is a crystallization process: vague impressions of opportunity for employment result in concrete understandings of alternatives to current employment. According to Steel (2002) people engage in job search activities to get more particularistic information. Also, movement capital increases employability and produces feelings of psychological mobility. In conjunction with job satisfaction, this leads to extensive search for alternative job options. This can result in turnover.

What is the effect of job search on voluntary turnover?

Labour market knowledge is enhanced by job search. It gives employees better perceptions about the reality of the current labour market (Steel, 1996,2002). Therefore, job search should be consistent even if employees discover they have employability deficiencies through comparisons with
more information, which causes them to engage in more career strategy behaviours. Another thing that could happen is that individuals develop fully crystallized alternative job opportunities that result in voluntary turnover. However, job search can also cause work conditions to improve. This is because the labour market turnover can also result in a focus towards staying instead of leaving the organization. This is only true when someone is satisfied with the job.

What is the effect of voluntary turnover on the development of career competencies?

The theory of turnover in de model also discusses the effect of voluntary turnover on someone’s career. Previous literature often considered turnover as a dependent variable of the decision-making process. Especially in considering the extensive job mobility in the current workforce. Changing positions internally in an organization is different from moving to another company. Transitions that are interorganizational are more likely to introduce an individual to new contacts. Interorganizational transitions also lead to more knowing-how competencies because a substantially different position requires learning new skills. People that gain the phase of mastery in their career cycle often gain experience and expertise in a new area of responsibility. However, acquiring a different position within the same company learns them about organizational boundaries and the role of interpersonal relationships. Lastly, knowing-why competencies can grow as a result of turnover. Working in a new environment can provide new options for career exploration. It can provide insight in the best career path.

What are implications for further research?

The researchers tried to explain the cycle of adaptation over the job environment that is consistent with a cybernetic perspective on job search. They also ought to reposition the role of job satisfaction and its influence on voluntary turnover. Finally, they discussed an examination of consequences of voluntary turnover for career competencies. In the research they pointed out some the following suggestions for future research.

• One opportunity for future research could be to investigate other career orientations than measured in the current study. For example, the orientation career as a calling or career anchors.
• It is likely the comparison process between job does not only rely on the discrepancy of current and desired employability. The attribution regarding someone’s employability should be associated with the choice of certain career alternatives.
• The linkage between psychological mobility and employability should be researched more.
• The researchers believe that psychological mobility and some form of job search is needed for job dissatisfaction to kick in. In future research the three-way interaction between psychological mobility, job satisfaction and personal orientation should be examined.
• The responses of companies to potential departures should be considered.
• Future research should explain the conditions of the effect of turnover on knowing-why, knowing-how and knowing-whom competencies.
• There could also be a relationship between the quality of career relationships and the development of career competencies.
• The researchers suggest a direct test of the assumption that the enhancement of employability is salient to a certain segment of the workplace.
• The results of the study should be replicated across different cultures to research cross-cultural differences.
• Investigating the interacting role of economic changes could provide crucial insights into the process of voluntary turnover.
• Finally, methodological changes should be made to see if the outcomes also hold when they are researched with a longitudinal design.

Summary: Job search and voluntary turnover in a boundaryless world: a control theory perspective

• The authors propose that an increase of employability can result in finding alternative career paths. This finding is consistent with the cybernetic perspective: people enact in adaptational strategies for their career. Strategic behaviours can be used to enhance current competencies in career and to promote a high employability. Psychological mobility is enlarged by this, especially when people are not highly embedded in the job they currently have.
• The researchers suggest that enactment of career related behavioural strategies is related to with the development of know-how, know-why and know-whom skills. Furthermore, it is expected that some of the career strategies enhance human capital. Strategies related to enhancement of human capital also provide career related benefits. They also propose that career strategies related to networking lead to the development of social capital. Lastly, they suggest that people that can enhance their knowing-why competencies through undertaking career strategy behaviours. All career strategies propose an opportunity for the betterment of self-awareness, critical to knowing-why competencies.

Study note: Job search and voluntary turnover in a boundaryless world: a control theory perspective

1. The authors have a lot of recommendations for further research, for example they state that career orientations, such as career as a calling or career anchors should be considered. What other recommendations do the researchers make and how could they influence the workplace? This can be found in the final section of the article.
2. What is meant by voluntary turnover and what would be the reason that researchers are interested in knowing why and how people engage in voluntary turnover?
3. Make sure that you know the different things that influence voluntary turnover. The authors talk about job satisfaction, mobility, career strategies, employability and job search.

3. Career Resilience: An Integrated Review of the Empirical Literature

The literature on career resilience (CR) to develop a nomological network describing major components of the construct in relation to other constructs is reviewed and synthesized in this article. Antecedents and consequences are examined together with the theoretical basis of CR. The implications for the created model for managers, organizations and individuals is discussed.

What are the objectives of this study?

Technology, globalization, changing workplace demographics -and the economy change how individuals approach and evaluate their careers. Employees should be resilient, meaning that they should be able to "bounce back". Other requirements caused by the changing workplace are adaptive, nimble, employable and protean. CR is defined as the resistance of a person to career disruption when the environment is less than optimal. It is contrasting to career vulnerability which is the psychological fragility in situations with a less than optimal career environment. There are three sub-domains:

1. Self-efficacy
2. Risk taking
3. Dependency

Researchers found that CR grows when people gain more experience and age. Carson & Bedeian (1994) found that CR is a dimension of career commitment. However, in the early studies CR was a dimension of other career constructs. After that several publications followed on creation of a career resilient workforce. People should exhibit career self-resilience which is the ability to manage one's own work-life in a changing environment. Also, people should learn how to be self-employed.

Most research was focused on career adaptability, protean careers and employability instead of CR. Therefore, the importance of CR and how Human Resource Development (HRD) can assist in creation of novel knowledge to increase CR is researched.

What methods were used?

Several reviews on integrated literature have already been performed. For example: family resilience, personal resilience, psychological resilience and resilience in childhood. In the process of researching career resilience, several databases were searched. A staged review was conducted, and sixty articles were selected. After that seventeen more articles were rejected, and forty-three remaining articles were examined.

In the next phase, a nomological network was presented in which relationships with CR were discussed. A nomological network is defined as a theoretical framework to sum up the different dimensions of an existing construct in relation to other interrelated constructs. The nomological network can provide important considerations for future research. The first step is to define CR.

What is CR?

Currently, there are some major disambiguates in the definition of CR. Scholars have defined CR as the ability of people to recover from setbacks related to their career. However, this definition does not incorporate the environmental and contextual factors that contribute to the recovery. This is not a constant attribute. Others have defined CR as the process through human interactions, developed over time. The advantage of this view is that different mechanisms that contribute to CR are considered.

The current literature study suggests that CR is a complex phenomenon. It comes from interaction between different characteristics combined with contextual factors. The authors define CR as the developmental process of adaptation, persistence and flourishing of an individual in his career despite changes, disruptions and challenges over time. Three important aspects are highlighted:

• CR is a process rather than a one-time event
• CR is a positive adaptation because it develops
• CR should recognize that challenges and disruptions can cause setbacks in both personal and professional life.

How are personality traits are related to CR?

A variety of factors contribute to the capacity to combat adversities of life. Personality is a great contributor, research was done using the big five personality traits.

Consciousness is defined as the tendency for purposefulness, organized behaviour and ambition. It was the most frequently associated trait with CR. Proactiveness, like consciousness has a positive influence on CR. In a study to CR from Lastly, Bowles and Anrup (2016) they labelled the second most resilient group as adaptors. They exposed goal focused and systematic thinking behaviour, related to consciousness. The relationship between consciousness and CR is not completely clear. It might be that people with high consciousness engage in more proactive behaviour or they could have more effective coping strategies.

1. Neuroticism is associated with the experience of anxiety, depression and other psychological distress. A negative relation was found between trait anxiety, comparable to neuroticism and CR. However, negative affectivity, which is also comparable was not related to CR. People with high neuroticism might exhibit disengagement coping focused on escaping feelings of distress.
2. Openness is described as curiosity, imaginatively and flexibility. The relationship between openness and CR is positive. It was found that the innovators among teachers appear to be the most resilient. It is not clear how openness influences CR, it might be because they apply cognitive restructuring after a career setback.
3. Extraversion can be explained as the dimension of sociability. A weak, but positive relationship was found between extraversion and CR. A highly positive connection was found between positive affectivity and CR. Thus, the experience of positive emotions could contribute to CR.
4. Agreeableness means a caring, trusting and sympathetic tendency. A positive relation was found between agreeableness and CR. However, only one study found this result. The reason for the relationship might be that agreeable people have stronger social networks.

How are core self-evaluations related to CR?

Core self-evaluations are beliefs people hold about themselves and their functioning in social context. There are four traits that play a role: generalized self-efficacy, emotional stability, self-esteem and locus of control.

• Locus of control is an individual’s perceived control over events in life. A positive correlation was found between internal locus of control and CR. Also, self-directedness and hardiness were positively associated with CR.
• Self-efficacy is the perception of one's ability to perform across different situations. All studies found a positive correlation with CR.
• Self-esteem is the value someone has about himself. Only one study examined the relation with CR, but they found a strong and positive relationship. It is possible that people with positive core self-evaluations handle coping more adaptively.

How do skills influence CR?

Skills, developed over a period could also contribute to CR. For example, the skill to challenge counterproductive beliefs could be helpful during a career setback. There are skills that can be developed to enhance CR. These are technical -and time management, communication skills and support skills. Furthermore, Akkermans, Brenninkmeijer, Schaufeli and Blonk (2015) found six career competencies contributing to CR: self-profiling, work explanation, reflection on qualities, career control, networking and reflection on motivations.

How do attitudes influence CR?

It was found that attitudes such as eagerness to learn, liking challenges, not taking things personally and optimism contribute to CR.

• Career-related attitudes refer to career orientation.
• Boundaryless means that someone has a career focus that is not limited by boundaries. This was negatively associated with CR.
• Protean career focus is that someone is focused on the individual rather than the organization of being in control over one's career. This form of self-directed protean orientation was positively correlated with CR.

How do behaviours influence CR?

Learning about organizational changes is positively related to CR. Other behaviours that positively influence CR were:

1. Health habits
2. Learning behaviours
3. Boundary-setting behaviour
4. Self-reflection

How does career history influence CR?

Some studies found an effect of career history on CR. It was a counter-intuitive relation in which training could increase CR, but at the same time decreases satisfaction. This could be because training can increase career expectations making them more disappointed when a setback is experienced.

How do contextual factors influence CR?

A supportive workplace can contribute to CR. For example, supervisor support and equitable treatment have a positive effect on CR. Furthermore, the absence of positive affective experiences is negatively correlated to CR. Organizational support also means development of employees' competencies and skills. Job characteristics can enhance the intrinsic motivation about work. Autonomy, feedback and skill variety have a positive influence on CR. Finally, having a supportive family is important for CR.

What are the implications for further research -and practice?

There should be consensus about the meaning of CR. It should be considered a process. The advantages are that it is less restrictive and can help provide better insights in how career resilience can be enhanced. It is important to emphasize individual career development rather than organizational benefit in HRD.

Both training and development opportunities should be created to help increase CR. Additionally HRD should recognize that counselling is needed throughout one's career. Furthermore, contextual factors should be considered. These include providing someone with a leadership role, promotion of autonomy and skill variety and maintain supportive relationships throughout the workplace.

Summary: Career Resilience: An Integrated Review of the Empirical Literature

• Consciousness is defined as the tendency for purposefulness, organized behaviour and ambition. It was the most frequently associated trait with CR. Proactiveness, like consciousness has a positive influence on CR. In a study to CR from Lastly, Bowles and Anrup (2016) they labelled the second most resilient group as adaptors. They exposed goal focused and systematic thinking behaviour, related to consciousness.
• Skills, developed over a period could also contribute to CR. For example, the skill to challenge counterproductive beliefs could be helpful during a career setback. There are skills that can be developed to enhance CR. These are technical -and time management, communication skills and support skills.
• There should be consensus about the meaning of CR. It should be considered a process. The advantages are that it is less restrictive and can help provide better insights in how career resilience can be enhanced. It is important to emphasize individual career development rather than organizational benefit in HRD.

Study note: Career Resilience: An Integrated Review of the Empirical Literature

1. The authors talk about the relation between consciousness and CR. Why is this relation not completely clear?
2. What kind of behaviours could influence CR? What way can you think of how they could act like that?
3. What do the authors propose as the solution of the article. How should CR be considered in the future and how could this contribute to a better well being of employees? This is stated in the final section of the article.

4. Adaptable careers: maximizing less and exploring more.

Nowadays youngsters are forced to choose between vocational, educational, and job options in order to make the best possible choice. Decision making with regards to career is important but doesn't acknowledge the problems related to this process. Intuitive processing of information about careers could help people to develop a more flexible and positive view about themselves and their environment. It can also contribute to diminishing worries about accountability and irreversibility of career decisions. Also, adaptability should become more important than decision making.

What are the objectives of this study?

Career indecision is common among college students and is often associated with feelings of anxiety and low self-esteem. Many people are unhappy with their decision afterwards. In this article, researchers trying to determine the importance of decision making in careers given the traditional concept of career. They argue that conscious decision making is not the most optimal strategy for making career decisions. It might be better to choose based upon new concepts, such ad adaptability, short-term decision making and mastery of different roles.

What is the role of rationality and intuition in decision making?

Decision making is a complex process and costs time and effort due to its cognitive nature. Decisions about career are often made based upon great uncertainty. According to Peterson, Sampson, Lenz & Readron (2002) there are five stages of decision making:

1. Defining the problem
2. Understanding the underlying mechanisms
3. Formulating plausible alternatives
4. Prioritizing alternatives
5. Evaluating the outcomes

First, in defining the problem the first obstacle is presented. Questions about goals and career perspective arise while the overall process is unclear. An overview of plausible alternatives often is missing and evaluating the outcomes seems almost impossible. Despite these difficulties, a decision is made. This is based upon different decision styles that are used:

• Rational style: a logical and structural approach;
• Intuitive style: based upon impressions and feelings
• Avoidant style: postponing
• Spontaneous style: impulsive decision making

Deciding which style to use depends on circumstances. For example, a rational decision style does not work under time pressure. It also turns out rational decisions are often not the best decisions because people do not have all possible choice alternatives. The best choice was often made using both rational and intuitive decision making. However, another strategy is that people often feel a felt preference after postponing a decision for a while. This is the result of unconscious thought. Fundamental research found evidence for unconscious decision-making being an intelligent way of decision making. This had the following implications.

• Rational thinking is only useful when people have information about their self-awareness and the environment.
• Relying too much upon rational decision making can block decision making.

What is meant by career indecision?

The avoidant, spontaneous and dependent decision-making styles are expressions of indecision. Generally, people decide when the two requirements are met.

1. The chosen option must be minimally attractive;
2. The chosen option must be slightly better than other options;

People set a norm for what is minimally attractive and differ in their regulatory focus. This is the tendency to focus on promotion or prevention. The regulatory focus is not fixed.

How do people respond to many choice options?

People tend to be less happy when presented with more choices. This is because people tend to strive for the best choice. This makes the norm very high. Therefore, having to choose between a large amount of career options could result in less favourable outcomes.

What is the influence of accountability and irreversibility?

When people can choose the best possible career, failure of their career will result in self-blame. They are accountable for their success. If people are not encouraged to aim for a maximal outcome, they might rely more on unconscious decision making leading to more positive outcomes. Also, irreversibility comes from the fact that young adults were promoted to choose their career path early even though in the current reality the right choice for an optimal future career does not exist.

What is traditional career theory?

In traditional career theory the delay of decision making is often seen as problematic. However, they might lead to the opposite. According to traditional career theory, people tend to seek environments that match their attitudes and values. Other theories, such as the social cognitive career theory says that environment and experiences shape occupational choices. Super (1999) stated career stages bound to age for making a career decision. First there is growth, followed by exploration, establishment, maintenance and finally disengagement.

What is future career theory?

It is argued that changing job markets will change decision making. A rapid adaptation of skills is required and traditional careers less common. This means traditional career theories do no longer apply. In the future career theory, continuous experimenting and learning is emphasized. People should focus on their breadth self-efficacy, rather than task-specific self-efficacy. Young adults should not rely on planning their career and focus on career adaptability. They should be ready to cope with both predictable and unpredictable adjustments in work conditions.

Summary: Adaptable careers: maximizing less and exploring more

• Decision making with regards to career is important but doesn't acknowledge the problems related to this process. Intuitive processing of information about careers could help people to develop a more flexible and positive view about themselves and their environment. It can also contribute to diminishing worries about accountability and irreversibility of career decisions. Also, adaptability should become more important than decision making.
• When people can choose the best possible career, failure of their career will result in self-blame. They are accountable for their success. If people are not encouraged to aim for a maximal outcome, they might rely more on unconscious decision making leading to more positive outcomes. Also, irreversibility comes from the fact that young adults were promoted to choose their career path early even though in the current reality the right choice for an optimal future career does not exist.

Study note: Adaptable careers: maximizing less and exploring more

1. The authors talk about traditional and future career theory. What is the difference between these theories and what world-events could have caused this shift in thinking about career?
2. What exactly is career indecision and why can this be related to having a lot of choice options?

5. From theory to intervention: mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques

Designing interventions to change behaviour often rely on theories that provide little guidance on how behaviour is changed. In the current article, the researchers try to explain methods for the development of behaviour changing techniques and for linking existing techniques to the underlying theoretical constructs.

What are the objectives of this study?

Interventions to change behaviour should be based on behavioural theories. Problems with interventions often arise in the evaluation part. This is because the intervention is not fully defined. When designing an intervention there are some steps that need to be taken.

1. Accumulation of evidence

2. Creating a theoretical basis

3. Modelling of the theoretical basis. This includes hypothesis testing of what to target and how to target.

4. Designing and implementing including evaluation.

The use of theory in interventions is important because interventions are often more effective when they target the behaviours that are responsible for behavioural change. Also, the only way to test a theory properly is when it relies on theoretically informed evaluations. Lastly interventions based on theory facilitate the understanding of the intervention across different populations, contexts and behaviours. A theory-based intervention is an intervention where implicit causal assumptions are avoided and that can be tested using a randomised controlled trial. Without a theoretical basis intervention prove to be less effective, but even with a theoretical framework the information about how to develop theory-based interventions is limited. Therefore, researchers that design intervention should have a small number of theoretical frameworks that are based on empirical evidence of the predictive value. Then, techniques should be identified to change these behavioural determinants. There is currently no accessible and comprehensive list of techniques. There should be a procedure for the selection of techniques to target behavioural determinants. The aim of this study is to contribute to the process of constructing a taxonomy about techniques used for behavioural change and the development of theory-based interventions.

What methods were used in this study?

They generated a list of techniques published in two systematic reviews. In stage 1 a list of techniques and definitions was created by consultation of textbooks and brainstorming. Also, the reliability of the extracted definitions was measured. Then thirty-five techniques were used for brainstorming by clinical psychologists. In addition, two of the authors expanded the created list by systematically extracting techniques from textbooks. These textbooks were identified by clinical course leaders. Then the reliability of extracting definitions was tested. A third, independent researcher assessed this reliability. During stage two techniques were mapped onto behavioural determinants. The applicability of each technique was rated and categorized upon agreement. The categories were the following:

1. Agreed use: researchers agreed upon the use of the technique

2. Agreed non-use: agreement that technique would not be used

3. Disagreement

What were the results of the study?

The researchers found eleven constructs associated with behaviour change. Thirty-five techniques were identified and expanded to fifty-three by brainstorming techniques and enlarged to one hundred thirty-seven by using textbooks. The fifty-three definitions that were agreed upon by the four experts were assessed together with the additional eighty-three definitions derived from textbooks. Then the definitions were mapped onto behavioural determinants. The agreement for fifty-three of the definitions came to 74.7%. Furthermore, agreements about the link between the thirty-five techniques and theoretical constructs was calculated to be 71%.

What can be concluded by the research?

The work illustrates that developing a comprehensive and reliable taxonomies related to theory can be developed. A reasonable agreement can be accomplished about the identification of separate techniques, definitions and mapping them onto behavioural determinants. It is clear that this is a cumulative process and the created list will get more and more additions to it. A technique should have a clear definition and should not duplicate techniques that are already in the list. The generation of the list used for theory-based interventions has a wider applicability. It can also be used to describe interventions without a theoretical basis, but only when the behavioural determinants fit the 11 described domains. Furthermore, it could be used to describe interventions that have already been published in meta-analysis. However, further refinement is needed to diminish redundancies, complete definitions and to resolve uncertainties.

What were the strengths and limitations of the current study?

Despite the subjective difficulty of the task, the results of the mapping techniques showed a reasonable level of agreement. A lack of familiarity with the techniques would result in disagreement or uncertainty. This finding alone can be applied in avoid wasting human resources on interventions likely to be unsuccessful. There is also a substantial agreement about changes to some of the determinants and techniques on changing each of the eleven theoretical domains.

However, the classification across causal determinants was not evenly distributed. This indicates that fewer options for the selection of change techniques that we are not aware of. Some techniques appear to be relevant to changing more constructs than others. The selection of techniques should be guided, and it may be more feasible to operationalize certain techniques instead of others. In future research, more techniques for a single determinant might be identified.

Another possibility is that with a larger body of experts it is likely that more techniques could be found using a larger body of experts. This will increase the number of techniques substantially.

Summary: From theory to intervention: mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques

• Interventions to change behaviour should be based on behavioural theories. Problems with interventions often arise in the evaluation part. This is because the intervention is not fully defined. When designing an intervention there are some steps that need to be taken.

5. Accumulation of evidence

6. Creating a theoretical basis

7. Modelling of the theoretical basis. This includes hypothesis testing of what to target and how to target.

8. Designing and implementing including evaluation.

• The work illustrates that developing a comprehensive and reliable taxonomies related to theory can be developed. A reasonable agreement can be accomplished about the identification of separate techniques, definitions and mapping them onto behavioural determinants.

Study note: From theory to intervention: mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques

1. What is the importance of this type of research for treatment and interventions that are used in psychology?
2. Why could the use of a larger body of professionals’ lead to a larger list of possible methods?

6. Nudging citizens? Prospects and pitfalls confronting a new heuristic

Recently, there has been a shift in paradigms in the debate about policies and their focus on nudge. Strategies for nudging are based on the understanding of social, moral and cognitive factors that drive human decision making. The area of environmental policy nudging is influenced by the government to help change citizens and corporate behaviour. Even though nudging strategies are often based on social science literature, the translation of theory into working strategies is not as straightforward as it might seem. Within nudge heuristics, the complexities and challenges of decision making should be addressed, otherwise potential in the creation of viable policy intervention is lost.

What are the objectives for this study?

Policy makers are developing new insights to re-emphasize or approach the way we approach citizens. These understandings have been neglected because in a state led society, command and incentive-based interventions were good enough. However, while seeking an alternative to create behaviour change, different tools -and way of thinking was required. This is when the nudge theories gained in popularity. Nudge thinking challenges some of the presumptions of the current national policy and administration. Yet there is evidence from social science that implications of nudging are not as straightforward as some of the advocates for nudging theory suggest. The translation of nudge insights to policy involve social and political challenges. The objective of this study is to argue that nudges that are already designed into policies might be limited in value because instead of a top-down way of processing, a bottom-up way should be used in the translation from nudge insights into practice.

When did the nudge paradigm emerge?

Jackson (2005) commented on existing policies that used traditional theories on how to change behaviour. He argued that the notion that people make rational decisions based on self-interest is so embedded in our policies on how to change consumer and citizen behaviour, it has an immediate familiarity to us. In the book Nudge, by Thaler and Sunstein (2008) the rationalist view of changing human behaviour is challenged. He argues to see people as homo economics instead of homo sapiens. People are less than perfect decision makers, they do not make rational decisions, but rather use shortcuts, social norms, pressures and even morals. The starting point for nudge was that people lack the ability to process all the information of multiple sources to some to a decision. Campaigns in which the acceptability of certain ideas is promoted provoke actions in humans holding the same ideas. The idea of rational choice as the lead heuristic for understanding decision making should be replaces by the claim of nudge: that people reason based on cognitive shortcuts, social processes and motivations that are not just instrumental.

What evidence is there from social science that explains nudge in relation to human decision making?

There have been findings from social science on which the nudge approach is based.

First, cognitive pathways influence the way people make decisions. Humans have a fundamental problem in decision making because we are unable to process the available information and determine the consequences. This is because our cognitive capacity is limited. The decision-making process is therefore guided by habits of thought, rules of thumb and emotions. Several popular theories have emerged explaining this perspective.

• The social prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky. 1979) states that decision makers that ownership of goods plays a significant role in the decision-making process. When people are afraid that they have something to lose, they apply strategies to prevent loss from occurring.

• Psychological discounting means that short-term effects weigh higher than long-term effects in decision making. Discounting is the behaviour in a less rational and consistent way in which we place hyperbolic discounting is applied. This leads to overweighting short-term consumption and discounting long-term effects.

• The prosperity to maintain a status quo means that people do not change their habits unless they are pressured to. A powerful mechanism that could help is the shifting to maximization of social welfare. This means to remove the active-decision choice and automatically enrol people into actions that support social welfare, for example pension savings programmes.

• The issue of cognitive consistency means that people aim to achieve consistency between behaviour and beliefs. If these two clash, it results in the uncomfortable feeling of cognitive dissonance. People are more motivated to change their behaviour to be consistent with their beliefs.

Secondly, social influences such as how we are seen by others alter our decisions. The technique of information disclosure makes people more likely to contribute to the community because they see others do it too. The visibility of individual actions therefore leads to the creation of social norms. Social context is important because it guides people in what behaviour is accepted or expected. When people are confronted by a situation and perceive ambiguity, they rely on the opinion of people they trust on social cures from people they trust and identify with. Important theories are theories of inter-group bias and the social capital theory.

• Theories of inter-group bias stress the importance of loyalty -and identification promoted by group membership. We look for a way to behave, or social proof.

• The social capital theory states that social networks that underpin social norms, such as trust, mutuality and reciprocity influence decision making. This is because obedience or disobedience to social norms can lead to approval or disapproval of the community.

The third are moral convictions. There are three forms of moral behaviour described by Goodin (1980).

• Prudential morality is an appeal to enlightened and long-term self-interest and is achieved by self-reflection.

• Internalized moral principles are given the same status as instrumental and self-interested motivations in decision making.

• Sacred moral principles require protection and shall not be traded under any circumstances.

How can nudges be translated into policy interventions?

Nudge-style insights can be used for designing successful policy interventions. Nudges that include social information, pledging and feedback were more effective. The tools that governments can use to shape their policies for behavioural change are described below.

• Framing is the way in which policy makers address context to encourage targeted groups to respond in certain ways. Framing is a top-down approach in which decisions are influenced by support and policy format. However, a lack of trust in the government may limit conveying the message.

• Persuasion is a technique in which people’s beliefs are consciously altered. Framing only changes the relative importance whereas persuasion is trying to change belief content. It is again a top-down technique where a clear capacity for delivery of a strong message is required. However, too many conflicting challenges or perspectives limit the capacity for shifting beliefs.

• Norm-creation is when the government is trying to create positive norms in society and specifically in social groups. It is a way of bottom-up influencing decision making and uses the ability to cede control. It also only works in an interactive partnership with citizens. Failing can occur when the government cannot provide time, space and support the citizen-led activities to promote norm-creation.

The researchers argument that their claims support the development of nudge strategies and their appliance, the use of conventional tools is needed as well. For financial purposes, health and authority, conventional tools are more useful in behavioural regulation. Nudge can bring in additional tools for changing consumer habits.

Summary: Nudging citizens? Prospects and pitfalls confronting a new heuristic

• Strategies for nudging are based on the understanding of social, moral and cognitive factors that drive human decision making. The area of environmental policy nudging is influenced by the government to help change citizens and corporate behaviour.

• Persuasion is a technique in which people’s beliefs are consciously altered. Framing only changes the relative importance whereas persuasion is trying to change belief content. It is again a top-down technique where a clear capacity for delivery of a strong message is required. However, too many conflicting challenges or perspectives limit the capacity for shifting beliefs.

Study note: Nudging citizens? Prospects and pitfalls confronting a new heuristic

• What do Thaler and Sunstein (2008) mean when they say people should be considered ‘homo economics’ instead of ‘homo sapiens’?

• What is the difference between persuasion techniques and framing? When would policy makers use framing and when would they want to use persuasion? Why?

• What are reasons for the three proposed nudging strategies (framing, persuasion and norm-creation) to fail?

7. Nudge and the manipulation of choice: a framework for the responsible use of the nudge approach to behaviour change in public policy.

The book of Thaler and Sunstein (2008) suggests that policy-makers of public policies should arrange decision making in a way that behaviour change is promoted. Both society and individual interests should be considered. Yes, discussions concerning the acceptability of nudge-based policy to change behaviour have emerged.

What are the objectives of this study?

According to Thaler and Sunstein (2008) people are always influenced by the context of decision making and nudging is just taking the liberty of using this for influencing these decisions. On the other hand, criticism of nudging techniques arises with the argument that nudging works by manipulation of citizens’ choices. The aim of the current article is to illustrate that arguments on both sides are flawed. The dual-process theory is used to show the epistemic transparency criterion described by Thaler and Sunstein (2008) to show that nudging is not about manipulation nor influencing choice. They create a framework in which four types of nudges are identified. They can provide a central component for nuanced, normative considerations in creating social policies.

How should nudging be approached in behavioural change policy?

Nudge means that human decision making is not rational but influenced by several social and environmental factors. Decision making is often influenced by subtle, insignificant-seeming contextual cues. Thaler and Sunstein (2008) suggest creating policy based on ways to influence people’s behaviour taking these contextual cues into consideration while avoiding the pitfalls and problems of traditional approaches. The definition by Thalor and Sunstein (2008) of nudge is that if subtle changes in the context of decision making can lead us astray from our best interest, the insights of how that happens can ‘nudge’ people in the right direction for health, happiness and wealth. This low-cost technique of changing political measures therefore is highly attractive.

What are the responsibilities of designing interventions based on nudge?

According to Thaler and Sunstein (2008) an architect of choice should take responsibility for the organization of context in which people make decisions. They suggest that these people should view themselves as choice architects. In this context, many people are considered choice architects. A policy-maker who adjusts the range of choice options is just as much a choice architect as someone who adjusts the choice structure. A choice architect should choose a way to design the context in which people make decisions and that he is responsible for. They also note there is nu such thing as a neutral design. It is impossible to be an agent in people’s decision making without influencing people’s behaviour and choices. The responsible thing to do is to incorporate and recognize the knowledge on nudge when designing the choice architecture, he is responsible for. According to the pro-nudge position it seems that nudging for his own benefit is always permitted. No one is forcing citizens or limiting their options to choose otherwise.

What are criticisms on the nudge approach?

Criticism of the nudge approach are that people are manipulating choices. It is said that nudging impairs people’s autonomy and ability to make our own moral choices. However, the characterization of nudging as such relies on the theory of agency that people assign to themselves. Policy recommendations that rely on this agency theory and the characterization as manipulation of choice is discussed in this article.

Why is the anti-nudge position not a literal non-starter?

Thaler and Sunstein (2008) describe nudging as the choice architecture that changes people’s behaviour in a way that no other options are forbidden or significantly changing their economic inventive. They argue the anti-nudge position is a literal non-starter because choice architecture may exist without the existence of a “nudger”. They argue that a neutral design of choice architecture does not exist even when the observed effects happened by accident. Even though architects do not intend to nudge towards particular ends, we are nudged to consequential and predictable behaviour even if a choice architect did not mean to. This is according to the position that nudging is a literal non-starter. However, according to the authors it is not. Nudging cannot be justified just because there is no neutral design for it. It is not a literal non-starter for the following reasons:

• The argument that neutral designs do not exist gives the pro-nudge approach an attractive defence. The argument says that we are always being nudged, regardless of anyone’s attempts. It’s argued that nudges are an inescapable effect of any type of decision making. It is supported by the observation that nudging does not promote behaviour that alters freedom of choice. Also, someone is always able to reject the behavioural change.

• The condition that is constructed for the literal non-starter is if a neutral design does not exist, this means we are always being nudged. Yet something important is being overlooked here. Someone can both unintentionally or intentionally influence behaviour. The distinction between these is important because of the notion of responsibility. Therefore, a nudge should be described as by Hausman and Welch, that it is the intentional attempt to influence one’s choices.

• The ends and means of libertarian paternalism means that certain ends and values should be promoted in influencing choices. Policy makers should nudge to promote things in interest of citizens. It seems preferable to any other alternative and serves in the interest of citizens.

• Finally, the principled freedom to choose differently is an important consideration in the debate. The fact that we have insights in the human fail ability in relation to decision making does not justify any choice intervention. The realistic definition of human agency should be taken into consideration, meaning that people do not always decide according to their reflected preferences. When people are nudged into a certain direction, they might lose the ability to choose otherwise.

Does nudging manipulate freedom of choice?

Nudging is described as the manipulation of choice, not behaviour. Because these concepts are not interchangeable, a further classification of the concept is needed. Therefore, the dual-process theory, actions and causes and types of nudges are discussed.

• The dual process theory states that the human brain distinct between two ways of human processing. One is intuitive, automatic thinking (fast thinking) and the other is rational, deliberate thinking -or reasoning (slow thinking). Kahneman refers to these two ways of thinking as system I and system II thinking. Automatic thinking is often uncontrolled, effortless, fast, associative, skilled and unconscious. Reflective -and rational thinking has the characteristics of effortful, slow, controlled, rule following and self-aware. The point of the theory is to describe that behaviour can result from either modes of thinking.

• Actions and causes are often described in terms of state of the world meaning that an agent intentionally wants to bring about. There is an active deliberation that is determined by the available course of action depending on the situation. According to actions and causes a choice comes from the process of reflective thinking. A non-voluntary action is not described as a real action, but only a event that happens to you which was not, but could have been controlled.

• Two types of nudges, and only one aimed at reflective reasoning or choice. Even though both types of reasoning reflect automatic thinking processes, only one reflects on behaviour changing reflective reasoning. Type I nudges influence how behaviour is maintained by automatic processing without thinking reflectively about the consequences. Type II nudging is nudging to influence actions, behaviours. This is done deliberately by limiting the set of choices for example.

Based on these notions, a new definition of nudging is described: the behavioural influence in a predictable way, without prohibiting courses of action that were previously available, making alternatives costlier in terms of social sanctions and time.

What is the view of Thaler and Sunstein on transparency in nudging theory?

In democratic policy making, the transparency of measures is an important issue. The concepts deliberation, consent, respect and accountability should be considered. It should be clarified to what extend nudging works by manipulating choice or behaviour. Transparency is a measure of guiding principle according to Thaler and Sunstein. They derived it from the publicity principle, which means that the government should be able to protect its citizens. They adopt the principle for two reasons:

1. The government could be embarrassed if the policy and its grounds are disclosed.

2. The government should have respect for the people it governs.

The conclusion of Thaler and Sunstein is that this publicity principle is a good guideline. Even though Thaler and Sunstein advocate strong transparency, which means that the government should never be secretive about what they are doing in terms of nudging. Also, they ban subliminal priming as an alternative. Nudging should be manageable and disclosed to the people that are subject to it. However, the principles of subliminal priming are in accord with people’s moral intuitions. This means that it becomes restrictive and may even lead to an ethical paradox when applied to the nudging approach. Thaler and Sunstein also suggest an epistemic dimension of transparency, they argue that nudging is not necessarily about manipulation choices and behaviours but should be divided into transparent and non-transparent. Some choices might be objectionable, they are not visible and impossible to monitor.

• Transparent nudges are provided in a way that the intentionality and the pursued behavioural change is visible.

• Non-transparent nudges are nudges where the person is unable to reconstruct the intention of means by which the change in behaviour is constructed.

This notion of epistemic transparency can be used as a criterium for the evaluation whether nudging is a form of manipulation. The psychological sense of manipulation is the intention to change perception, behaviour or choices through deceptive or abusive tactics. The transparency of the nudge can determine its effectiveness. Nudges in the dark tend to be more effective than obvious ones.

What is the effect of nudging on the manipulation of choice?

Given the two types of nudging, transparent vs non-transparent, four different nudges can be distinguished. Some nudges will fall into a grey zone or will be difficult to qualify. However, the matrix is a valuable guide and basis for the typology for different types of nudges. It can also help with policy recommendations.

1. Transparent type 2 nudges are in the top left corner of the matrix. This intervention type is easy to reconstruct for the citizen. The intentions for the behavioural change are very clear, just as the way the reflective system is engaged. A popular example is the seat-belt alarm in a car.

2. Transparent type 1 nudges are situated in the bottom-left corner. Reflective thinking does not cause the behavioural change but happens as a side product. This makes it easier to reconstruct the way in which the nudge is used to influence behaviour. An example is playing relaxing music while people are boarding an airplane.

3. Non-transparent type 2 nudges are in the matrix at the top-right corner. The success of the nudge depends on the unconscious activation of reflective thinking. People should be unable to reconstruct the incentive of the nudge. Subtle cues are used to activate reflective thinking for making specific choices. One example is the lottery where people start to overestimate the chance of winning.

4. Non-transparent type 1 nudges in the bottom-right corner resemble nudges that cause changes in behaviour without engaging the reflective thinking system. It is not likely the person will be aware of it and will neither be able to explain or reconstruct the nudge afterwards. One example is an experiment done by Wansink described in “mindless eating”. By reducing the size of plates in a cafeteria to a 10-inch dinner plate instead of a 12-inch one, people ate 22% less calories.

Thus, the facilitation of a consistent choice in a transparent manner is an example of system II thinking. Also, the non-transparent manipulation of choice. System I thinking is the transparent influence of behaviour and the non-transparent equivalent of behaviour.

What is the proposed framework for the responsible use of nudging?

Given the typology for nudging in the previous section, the authors developed a guideline for applying nudging in the creation of policy. It provides a framework based upon which you can decide whether a nudge is manipulative (non-transparent) or based on choice (reflective thinking).

1. Transparent type 2 nudges are not meant to influence people by psychological manipulation. They are used to promote decision making that can be seen by the citizen. They are in line with the preferences of people and provide feedback. They are facilitating the freedom of choice. The autonomy of people is protected. It can be explained as prompting of reflected choice.

2. Transparent type 1 nudges do not try to influence people’s choices, they influence automatic behaviour transparently. These nudges do work within the sense of manipulation and influence behaviour. Citizens are not free to ignore the response that the nudge causes. The principle of freedom is there, but most people are not able to ignore the consequences. This is because it works on automated behaviour.

3. Non-transparent type 1 nudges use psychological and mechanical manipulation. They cannot be regarded transparent or one of choice. They influence automatic behaviour without someone being aware of it. They operate outside of the radar. People can only avoid them by meaning of principle. Therefore, they are paternalistic and described as manipulating behaviour.

4. Non-transparent type 2 nudges are manipulating choice because it works with psychological manipulation to get people to unconsciously think or act a certain way. It does not influence autonomous decision making and are cases of straightforward paternalism. It is difficult to ascribe the responsibility to decision-makers because their actions are the result of manipulation by the architect of the choice.

Summary: Nudge and the manipulation of choice: a framework for the responsible use of the nudge approach to behaviour change in public policy.

• According to Thaler and Sunstein (2008) people are always influenced by the context of decision making and nudging is just taking the liberty of using this for influencing these decisions. On the other hand, criticism of nudging techniques arises with the argument that nudging works by manipulation of citizens’ choices. The aim of the current article is to illustrate that arguments on both sides are flawed.

• According to Thaler and Sunstein (2008) an architect of choice should take responsibility for the organization of context in which people make decisions. They suggest that these people should view themselves as choice architects. In this context, many people are considered choice architects. A policy-maker who adjusts the range of choice options is just as much a choice architect as someone who adjusts the choice structure.

Thaler and Sunstein also suggest an epistemic dimension of transparency, they argue that nudging is not necessarily about manipulation choices and behaviours but should be divided into transparent and non-transparent. Some choices might be objectionable, they are not visible and impossible to monitor.

• Transparent nudges are provided in a way that the intentionality and the pursued behavioural change is visible.

• Non-transparent nudges are nudges where the person is unable to reconstruct the intention of means by which the change in behaviour is constructed.

Study note: Nudge and the manipulation of choice: a framework for the responsible use of the nudge approach to behaviour change in public policy.

1. What do Thaler and Sunstein (2008) mean when they argue that people designing public policy on decision making should be considered choice architects?

2. There are different ways described about what happens before people make a choice. For example, the theory about system I and system II thinking. What does the dual process theory say about choices and how does it relate to the standpoint on nudging?

3. What types of nudging are in the proposed framework and what is the relation to transparency of nudging approaches?